
COFmiGUT DEPosm 




Chesapeake Strawberry. ' 



'From Year-Book, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1912. 



FARMING FOR PROFIT 



FRUITS, VEGETABLES 
AND FLOWERS 

ANON-TECHNICAL MANUAL FOR THEIR 
CULTURE, MANAGEMENT AND IMPROVEMENT 

BY 

FRANK D: GARDNER 

PROFESSOR OF AGRONOMY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE COLLEGE 
AND EXPERIMENT STATION 



R. L. WATTS 

Dean and Director, School of Agriculture and Experi- 
ment Station, Pennsylvania State College. 

PAUL WORK 

Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Veg- 
etable Gardening, Cornell University. 

C. W. WAID 

Extension Specialist, Michigan Agricultural College. 

H. M. WARE 

Practical Mushroom Grower, Delaware. 

W. W. STOCKBERGER 

Physiologist in Drug and Poisonous Plant Investi- 
gation, United States Department of Agriculture. 

M. G. KAINS 

Professor of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State College. 

F. F. MOON 

Professor of Forest Engineering College, of Forestry, 
Syracuse University. 



ASSISTED BY 

PROF. L. C. CORBETT 

In charge of Horticultural and Pomological Investi- 
gations, United States Department of Agriculture. 



JOHN P. STEWART, Ph.D. 

Professor of Experimental Pomology, Pennsylvania 
State College. 

F. C. SEARS 

Professor of Pomology, Massachusetts Agricultural 
College. 

HERBERT J. WEBBER, Ph.D. 

Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, 
University of California. 

C. A. REED 

Nut Culturist, United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

F. G. DE QUEVEDO 

Pennsylvania State College. 

A. W. COWELL 

In charge of Landscape Gardening, Pennsylvania 

State College 



ILLUSTRATED 



THE JOHN C. WINSTON COMPANY 



PHILADELPHIA 



CHICAGO 






Copyright, 1918, by 
The John C. Winston Company 



Copyright, 1916, by 
L. T. Myers 



APR i9!9l9 

©CLAr)l5286 



PREFACE 



This book is written for growers of fruits, vegetables and flowers, 
and makes a popular appeal to all engaged in this branch of farming, 
whether amateurs or professionals. It is designed to be a handy reference 
work on the culture of vegetables, fruits, nuts, and flowers. 

There are chapters on the principles of vegetable gardening, mush- 
room culture, medicinal and aromatic plants, principles of fruit produc- 
tion, nut culture, beautifying home grounds, and a lengthy treatise on 
diseases of garden and orchard crops, and their remedies. 

Each department has been prepared by a speciahst in the subject 
presented, and his name appears at the beginning of each chapter. Those 
unacknowledged have been prepared by myself. References are given 
here and there to books and pamphlets for those wishing m.ore exhaustive 
information on specific subjects. 

The illustrations have been secured from many sources. Due credit 
has been given these. 

Special acknowledgment is due the publishers of this volume and 
the other volumes in the series for their conception, and for the many 
helpful suggestions in the presentation of its subject-matter. 

Acknowledgment is also due Professor E. L. Worthen and Professor 
R. S. Smith, both of the Pennsylvania State College, for helpful sugges- 
tions and criticisms on soils and crop rotations. I wish also to especially 
acknowledge the valuable editorial assistance of my -wdfe in the preparation 
of the manuscript. 

Frank D. Gardner. 



(^ 



CONTENTS 



PART I. HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY AND FLORICULTURE 

Chapter 1. THE PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLE GARDENING 19 

Soils and locations — Tillage and tools — Stable manures — Cover crops — Com- 
mercial fertilizers — The use of lime — Seeds and seed sowing — Transplanting — 
Starting early plants. 

Chapter 2. VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 25 

Asparagus — Bean — Beet — Brussel's sprouts — Cabbage — Carrot — Cauliflower 
— Celery — Cucumbers — Eggplant — Horseradish — Kale — Kohl-rabi — Leek 
— Lettuce — Muskmelon — Onion — Parsley — Parsnip — Pea — Pepper — Radish — 
Rhubarb — Salsify — Spinach — Squash — Sweet corn — Sweet potatoes — Tomato — 
Turnips — Watermelon. 

Chapter 3. THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 45 

Choosing a site — The garden plan — Fertility — Tillage — Garden seed — Growing 
early plants — Seed sowing — Transplanting — Cultivation — Irrigation — Pest control 
— Quality of vegetables — Storage of vegetables — Literature. 

Chapter 4. VEGETABLE FORCING 55 

Cold-frames — Hotbeds — The greenhouse — Growing plants under glass. 

Chapter 5. MUSHROOM CULTURE 59 

Houses — Preparation of the compost — Filling the beds — Spawning — Casing the 
beds — Temperature — Water — Ventilation — Picking and marketing — Mushroom 
enemies — Yield and returns. 

Chapter 6. MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 66 

Requirements for medicinal plants — Anise — Belladonna — Caraway — Coriander — 
Digitalis or foxglove — Common sage plant — Ginseng — Peppermint — Spearmint — 
Tansy — Wormwood — American wormseed — Additional equipment. 

Chapter 7. PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION, WITH SPECIAL 

REFERENCE TO THE HOME PLANTATION 71 

The main factors to consider — Moisture — Soil — Subsoil — The parasite — Site — 
Aspect — Wind-breaks — Nursery stock — Southern vs. Northern grown nursery trees 
— Time to plant — To heel-in trees — Marking out the field — Mixed plantings — The 
operation of planting— First pruning — How fruit buds are borne — Pruning for 
fruit — Pruning older trees — Tillage — Fertilizing — Thinning — Spraying — Harvest- 
ing and marketing — The value and importance of the home fruit garden — Quality 
first for the home. 

Chapter 8. SMALL FRUITS. 80 

The Strawberry. 
Selection of soil — Preparation of the soil — Fertilizers — Selecting and preparing the 
plants — Perfect and imperfect flowered plants— When to set the plants— ^How to 
set the plants — Depth to set the plants — Planting in hills — Renewing old beds — 
Cultivation — Objects of mulching — Materials for mulch — Harvesting and shipping 
— When to apply the mulch — Receptacles. 

(7) 



CONTENTS 



The Raspberry. Red raspberries — Selection and preparation of soil — Planting — 
Cultivation — Fertilizers — Pruning — Harves; ing the fruit — Black raspberries or 
blackcaps — Propagation — Character of the soil — Preparation of the soil — Cultiva- 
tion — Winter protection — FertiHzers — Pruning — Harvesting. 

The Blackberry. Soil — Propagation — Planting, tillage and fertihzers — Pruning 
and training — Harvesting. 

The Currant. Soil requirements — Culture and fertilization — Enemies and dis- 
eases — Harvesting the fruit. 

The Gooseberry. Soil — Preparation of land — Plants for setting — Planting — 
Cultivation — Fertilizers — Pruning — Harvesting. 
The Cranberry. 

Chapter 9. GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 98 

Soil — Preparation of the soil — Fertilizers — Choice of varieties to plant — Propa- 
gation — Planting, plowing and cultivating — Pruning — Diseases and insects — • 
Picking. 

Chapter 10. THE POME FRUITS 108 

The Apple. 
Origin — Cultural range— Propagation — Location and soil for the orchard — Varieties 
— Purchase and handling of nursery stock — Laying out the orchard — Planting 
the trees — Forming the heads — Later pruning — Soil management — Fertihzation — 
Protecting the trees — Spraying during the growing season — Thinning — Fruit 
picking and storage. 

The Pear. 

Origin — Propagation — Cultural range — Varieties — Location, soil and culture — 
Trees, planting and pruning — Protection and spraying — Picking the fruit. 

The Quince. 
Cultural range and varieties — Soil and cultiural methods — Pruning — Enemies. 

Chapter 11. STONE FRUITS 124 

Sites and soils — Nursery stock — Varieties — Planting — Soil management — Fer- 
tihzers — Pruning — Diseases, insects and spraying — Thinning the fruit — Harvesting 
and marketing. 

Chapter 12. CITRUS FRUITS AND THEIR CULTIVATION 136 

History — Citrus species and varieties — The sweet orange — The sour orange — The 
lemon — The pomelo or grapefruit — The lime — The mandarin orange — The citron — 
Citrus regions and their production — Propagation of citrus varieties — Orange 
seedlings — The orange nursery — Budding the nursery stock — Care of the nursery 
stock — Planting the orchard — Cultivation — Irrigation — Fertilization — Pruning — 
Frost protection — Diseases — Insects — Picking, packing and marketing of fruit. 

Chapter 13. NUTS AND NUT CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES .... 151 

The Principal Nuts. 
The peanut — The pinon pin{-yon) — The Persian walnut — The pecan — The almond 
— Nuts of minor importance. 

Chapter 14. MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 159 

The pineapple — Propagation — Soil — Preparation of soil — Cultivation — Varieties — 
Marketing — The avocado — The mango — The banana — The fig — The guava. 



CONTENTS 9 



Chapter 15. THE FARM WOODLOT 173 

Need of forestry — Value of the woodlot — Managing the woodlot — Improvement 
cuttings — Reproduction cuttings — Pruning — Planting — Financial results — 
Summary. 

Chapter 16. BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 183 

The survey — Planning for convenience — Formal ornamentation — Informal orna- 
mentation — Lawn planting — Use of flowers — Suggested materials. 

Chapter 17. WINDOW GARDENING 191 

Drainage — ^^Soil and exposure — Method of potting — Watering — Feeding plants — 
Ferns and foliage plants — Flowering plants — Plant lice. 

PART II. PLANT DISEASES, INSECT ENEMIES AND 
THEIR CONTROL 

Chapter 18. DISEASES OF GARDEN AND ORCHARD CROPS, AND THEIR 

REMEDIES 199 

Apple. Bitter rot or ripe rot — Black rot — Brown rot — Storage rots — Scab — Blotch 
— Rust — Fire blight — Other foliage spots and twig cankers — Mildew — Crown gall 
and hairy root. 

Pear. Blight — Rust — Scab — Leaf spot — Rots — Crown gall. 

Quince. Rust — Blight — Leaf — Rots — Crown gall — Spray table for apples, pears 
and cfuinces. 

Peach. Brown rot — Scab or freckles — Leaf curl — Shot holes — Crown gall — Mildew 
— Yellows — Little peach — Peach rosette — Spray table for peach. 

Plum. Black knot — Leaf spot— MUdew — Yellows — Brown rot — Crown gall — 
Spray table for plums. 

Cherry. Leaf spot — Black knot — Crown gall — Brown rot — Powdery mildew — 
Spray table for sweet cherries. 

Citrus Fruits. Brown rot — Black rot — Stem end rot and melanose — Other rots — 
Sooty mould — Black pit of the lemon — Anthracnose or wither tip — Scab — Canker. 

Fig. Rust — Cankers — Fruit rots. 

Pineapple — Mango — Avocado. 

Olive. Olive knot. 

Blackberry, Dewberry and Raspberry. Crown gall — Leaf spot — Anthracnose — 
Orange rust — Double blossom — Cane blight — Yellows. 

Strawberry. Leaf spot. 

Cranberry. Scald or blast — Rot — Anthracnose. 

Gooseberry. Powdery mildew. 

Currant. Anthracnose. 

Grape. Black rot — Bird's-eye or anthracnose — Bitter rot or ripe rot — Downy 
mildew — Powdery mildew — Necrosis — Crown gall. 

Asparagus. Rust. 

Bean. Anthracnose — Rust — Blight — Downy mUdew — Leaf spot. 

Pea. Spot. 

Beets. Leaf spot — Root rot — Scab. 

Cabbage, Cauliflower, Turnips, etc. Black rot — Club root or finger and toe disease. 



10 CONTENTS 



Canteloupes and Melons. Leaf blight — Downy mildew — Anthracnose — Wilt. 

Cucumber. Downy mildew — Anthracnose — Leaf blight and fruit spot — Wilt. 

Celery. Leaf spot. 

Onion. Smut — Downy mildew or blight. 

Parsnips. Blight. 

Potato. Late blight or downy mildew — Early blight — Wilt, stem rot and dry rot 
— Black leg — Scab — Little potato, rosette, stem rot, scurf — Bacterial wUt — 
Tipburn. 

Tomato. Early blight — Leaf blight — Fusarium wilt — Bacterial wilt — Blossom-end 
rot or point rot — Anthracnose — Fruit rot. 

Eggplant — Pepper. 

Lettuce. Mildew — Drop or wilt. 

Sweet Potato. Soft rot — Black rot — Stem rot. 

Peanut. Foliage and root diseases. 

Tobacco. Granville tobacco wilt — Mosaic, calico or mottle top — Leaf spots — 
Root rots. 

Chapter 19. INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 224 

General Crop Insects. 
CaterpUlars (leaf-eating) — Cutworms — Grasshoppers or locusts — Leaf beetles — 
Plant lice — White grubs — Wire worms — The army worm — The fall army worm. 

Truck Crop Insects. 
The asparagus beetle — Bean aphis — Bean weevil, the common — Other bean wee- 
vils — The beet army worm — Beet leaf beetle, the larger — The beet leaf hopper — 
BUster beetles — The cabbage looper — The caobage maggot — The Colorado potato 
beetle — Flea beetles — Harlequin cabbage bug — The hop aphis — The hop plant 
borer — The imported cabbage web worm — The imported cabbage worm — The 
melon aphis — The potato tuber moth — The squash bug — Squash vine borer — The 
striped cucumber beetle — Sugar beet web worm. 

Fruit Insects. 
Apple maggot or railroad worm — Apple-tree tent caterpillar — The brown-tail moth 
— Canker worm, the spring — And the fall — The cherry fruit flies — The codling moth 
or apple worm — Currant worm, the imported — The flat-headed apple-tree borer — 
The fruit tree bark beetle — The gipsy moth — The grape berry moth — Grape leaf 
hopper — The grape-vine flea beetle — The lesser apple worm — The peach tree borer 
— Pear leaf blister mite — Plant hce— Plum curculio — The rose chafer — Round- 
headed apple-tree borer — The San Jose scale. 

Chapter 20. INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 252 

Insecticides. 
Paris green — Arsinate of lead — Arsenate of zinc — London purple — White arsenic — 
Sulphur — Lime-sulphur wash — Tobacco extracts — Pyrethrum — White hellebore — 
Coal oil — Crude oils — Soaps — Coal tar — Borax — Other insecticides — Bisulphide of 
carbon — Carbon tetrachlorid — Para-dichlorobenzene — Hydrocyanic acid gas. 

Fimgicides. 
Copper sulphate — Bordeaux mix-ture — Copperas or iron sulphate^ — Formalin or 
formaldehyde — Bichloride of mercury — Lime-sulphur wash. 

Combined Insecticides and Fimgicides. 

Literature. 



CONTENTS 



11 



PART III. TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND 
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 

TABULAR STATEMENTS 269 

Table I. Percentage composition of agricultural products. 

Table II. Fertility in farm produce. 

Table III. Weight per bushel, seeding rate per acre, number of seeds per pound 

and depth to cover farm seeds. 
Table IV. Water requirements of various standard crops. 
Table V. Cost per acre, producing crops. 
Table VI. Average farm prices for the United States. Five-year periods, 1866- 

1915. 
Table VII. Weights and measures. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Chesapeake Strawberry (Color Plate) Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Necessary Garden Tools 19 

One of the Many Good Types of Seed Drills 22 

A Dibble 23 

Bunching Asparagus Ready for Market 26 

Four Strains of Jersey Wakefield Cabbage 29 

A Plant Transferred with Plenty of Earth is not Checked in Growth .... 30 

Strain Tests of Cabbage 31 

Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System 33 

Good Celery Well Prepared for Market 34 

Onions Under Skinner System of Irrigation 37 

Some Commercial Types of Sweet Potatoes 41 

Tomatoes Supported by Stakes 42 

A Farm Garden Laid Out for Convenience in Working 47 

Transplanting Board and Dibble in Use 48 

Planting the Seedlings 48 

Sowing from Seed Package or Envelope 51 

Wheel Cultivator and Attachments 52 

A Double Sash Steam-heated Hotbed 56 

A Greenhouse Suitable for Forcing Plants 57 

A Fine Bed of Mushrooms Grown from Spawn of Pure-culture Origin .... 60 

Turning the Compost . 61 

A Typical Range of Mushroom Hotijses 62 

Sifting the Casing Dirt 62 

Types of Fancy Packages 63 

Good Nursery Stock 72 

Before and After Pruning 75 

Picking Apples in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon 77 

A Spray of Good Strawberries 81 

Planting a Strawberry Runner 82 

American Quart Boxes of Well-graded Strawberries 85 

Land that will Produce Good Farm Crops will Produce Bush Fruits ... 87 

A Young Planting Cane of Raspberry, Showing Fibrous Roots 88 

Currants Should Find a Place in Every Home Garden 93 

White Currants 94 

Well-set Branch of Gooseberries 96 

A Typical Vinifera Valley Vineyard in California 98 

Picking and Hauling Wine Grapes 100 

A Typical Vinifera Hillside Vineyard in California 101 

American Euvitis Pruned and Trellised 102 

Typical Rotundifolia Arbors 103 

(13) 



14 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

ViNiFERA Vines Pruned to Canes in California 104 

ViNiFERA Vines Pruned to Spurs in California 105 

Picking and Drying Raisin Grapes in California 107 

Well Located Apple Orchard 109 

A Properly Pruned Young Apple Tree 113 

Apple Orchard Favored by Type of Soil 114 

Tools for Use in Removing Roundheaded Apple Tree Borer from Burrows . . 115 

A Power Sprayer Adapted to Large Trees 116 

A Good Cluster of Apples, but with Some Scab Showing 117 

Picking and Packing Apples 118 

Pear Tree in Blossom 120 

Good Specimens of Winter Nelis 121 

A Typical Peach Orchard Site 125 

Typical Sweet Cherries 126 

Block op Young Peach Trees with Strawberries as an Inter-crop 128 

Peach Tree with Well-formed Framework Heavily Cut Back for Renewal 

Purposes 129 

Peach Twig, Showing Arrangement of Leaf and Blossom Buds 130 

A Properly Pruned Peach Tree 131 

Pruning Tools 132 

Picking Peaches ; 134 

Ever-bearing Orange Tree 137 

Good Orange Seedlings 139 

Shield Budding with Angular Wood 140 

Shield or Eye Budding 141 

Shield or Eye Buds 142 

Pruning and Root Trimming of Citrus Tree at Time of Planting 146 

Picking and Packing Oranges 149 

Schley Pecan Tree 152 

Franquette Walnut Orchard, near Santa Rosa, Cal 154 

Major, Burkett, Warrick, Havens and Owens Pecans 156 

The Pineapple Plant in Fruit 160 

Pineapples Planted in an Orange Gro\'e 162 

The Taft Avocado Fruit 164 

Method of Budding the Avocado 165 

Fruit of the Mango 167 

A Top-worked Mango Tree in Fruit 169 

A Well Protected Farm Homestead 175 

Field and Woodlot 176 

A Woodlot after Thinning 177 

Good Work in Piling Brush 179 

A Convenient and Attractive Farmstead 184 

An Example of Good Informal Ornamentation 186 

A Desirable Method of Planting Daffodils 187 

Hyacinth Bed 188 

Removing the Plant from Old Pot 192 

A Well Proportioned Fern 193 

A Large Boston Fern 194 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 15 

PAGE 

Bulbs Grown in Water-tight Receptacle 195 

Apple Scab 201 

Apple Tree with Typical Collar Blight 202 

Young Apple Tree from Nursery 203 

Peaches Entirely Destroyed by Brown Rot 205 

Black Knot on the Cherry 207 

Anthracnose of Bean 214 

Enlarged Roots of Cabbage Caused by Nematodes 216 

Enlarged Roots of Cauliflower Caused by the Club-root Organism .... 217 

Potato Affected with Russet Scab 220 

Spray of Asparagus, with Common Asparagus Beetle in Different Stages. 227 

The Broad Bean Weevil 228 

Blister Beetle 228 

Leaf Hoppers and their Work 229 

Harlequin Cabbage Bug 230 

Colorado Potato Beetle 231 

Hop Plant Borer 231 

Wingless Progeny of Winged Hop Aphids from Alternate Host 232 

Imported Cabbage Web Worm 233 

Potato Tuber Moth 233 

Work of the Potato Tuber Moth 233 

Imported Cabbage Worm 234 

Squash Vine Border. 235 

Striped Cucumber Beetle 235 

Su gar-Beet Web Worm 235 

Cantaloupe Leaves 236 

Nest and Larv^ of Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar 237 

Apple Maggot, or Railroad Worm 238 

Stages and Work of Spring Canker-Worm 239 

Brown-Tail Moth 240 

Cherry Fruit Fly 241 

Fruit Tree Bark Beetle 241 

An Imported Currant Worm 241 

The Grape Berry Moth 243 

Injury to Grapes by Larv^ of Second Brood of Grape Berry Moth .... 244 

Grape Leaf Hopper 245 

Lesser Apple Worm 245 

Peach Tree Borer 246 

Adult Male and Female Roundheaded Apple Tree Borer 247 

Castings of Roundheaded Apple Tree Borer at Base of Young Apple 

Tree 247 

The Rose Chafer 248 

San Jose Scale 249 

A Lime Sulphur Cooking Outfit 255 

Making Preparations to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas 259 

Fumigating with Hydrocyanic Gas 260 

Efficiency of Bordeaux Mixture on Potatoes 262 

Teeating Grain with Fokmalin foe Smut 263 



PART I 

HORTICULTURE, FORESTRY AND 
FLORICULTURE 



17 



CHAPTER 1 

The Principles of Vegetable Gardening 

By R. L. Watts 

Dean and Director, School of Agriculture and Experiment Station, 

The Pennsijlvania State College 

A thorough knowledge of the underlying principles of vegetable 
gardening is exceedingly important, whether the vegetables are to be grown 
for the home table or for commercial purposes. 

Soils and Locations. — Soils containing a considerable quantity of 
sand are best adapted to the growing of vegetables. Such soils are well 
drained, easily calti- 
vated, and may be 
worked early in the 
spring. Sandy soils 
are warmer than clay 
soils, and for this rea- 
son crops mature 
earlier in them. They 
are especially desira- 
ble for crops requiring 
high temperatures, 
such as eggplants, 
peppers and melons. 
Any soil, however, 
which satisfactorily 
produces general farm 
crops,will,with proper 
treatment, grow good 
garden crops. The clay 
soils are avoided so far 
as possible by market 
gardeners and South- 
ern truck growers. 

Southern or southeastern exposures are preferable for vegetable gardening 
because they are warmer and, therefore, conducive to earlier crops. 
Northern and western exposures are satisfactory for the later crops. Natural 
or artificial windbreaks are of advantage where there are cold exposures. 

' Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses, 
Vol. II. 

19 




Necessary Garden Tools.^ 



20 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Tillage and Tools. — The importance of thorough tillage in the pro- 
duction of vegetables cannot be over-emphasized. It counts for high yields 
as well as high quality. The conservation of soil moisture should be kept 
constantly in mind. Vegetables are composed largely of water and enor- 
mous quantities of it are required in their growth. Fall plowing is often 
advisable, especially in clay soils which are to be planted early the follow- 
ing spring. Early spring plowing, followed by immediate harrowing, is 
favorable to the retention of moisture. 

The prudent garden maker will possess at least a small assortment of 
carefully selected modern tools or implements. Of the hand tools, the 
hand seed-drill and hand wheel-hoe are great time and energy savers and 
should be employed in all market gardens and in most home gardens. A 
variety of hand hoes and rakes should also be available. 

Stable Manures. — ^All classes of vegetable growers recognize the value 
of stable manure. It not only supplies plant food, but adds humus to the 
soil, thus making it more retentive of moisture and more favorable to 
chemical and bacteriological changes which are essential to plant growth. 
Horse manure is most universally employed. Market gardeners nearly 
always compost it in large piles, which are kept moist and turned one or 
more times before the manure is used. If the piles have rectangular sides 
and are kept moist there will be practically no loss of fertility during the 
process of composting. From four to six weeks of composting will kill all 
weed-seeds and leave the manure in the finest state of texture. Cow manure 
is most excellent for all classes of vegetables, but it is slower in action than 
horse manure. Sheep and poultry manures are rich in nitrogen and their 
texture makes them particularly desirable for vegetable gardening. 

Cover Crops. — In vegetable gardening it is absolutely essential to 
maintain the supply of vegetable matter in the soil. If stable manures are 
not available, cover crops must be produced for manurial purposes. The 
legumes, such as vetch, cowpeas, soy beans and the clovers, are most 
desirable, provided they can be grown satisfactorily, because they mate- 
rially add to the supply of soil nitrogen. Rye, oats and buckwheat, how- 
ever, can often be used to great advantage. The usual practice is to sow 
the seed of cover crops before the last cultivation of vegetables which 
mature and are harvested during the fall months. 

Commercial Fertilizers. — Commercial vegetable growers are seldom 
able to obtain, at reasonable prices, all the stable manure that they need 
for the maximum production of crops. In many instances they rely wholly 
upon green crops for humus, and purchase commercial fertilizers to supply 
plant-food. There is the most varied practice with reference to the kinds 
and amounts of fertilizer applied for the various crops. The character of 
the fertilizer depends upon the crops to be grown, nature of soil, previous 
treatment and seasonal conditions. If stable manures have been used in 
liberal amounts, say twenty to forty tons to the acre, and for truck crops 
like cabbage and sweet corn, it is seldom necessary to use more than half 



PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING 21 

a ton of fertilizer to the acre, containing four per cent of nitrogen and seven 
or eight per cent of each of the mineral elements — potash and phosphoric 
acid. As a rule, a complete fertilizer should be applied before the crops are 
planted, and thoroughly mixed with the soil by harrowing. If additional 
plant-food is needed after the crop is started, it may be applied along 
the rows. Nitrate of soda is largely used for this purpose. Applications 
may range from 100 to 250 pounds to the acre, and if desirecl may be 
applied at intervals of ten days to three weeks. 

The Use of Lime. — Lime in soils aids the development of plants. 
Vegetable growers recognize the necessity, more than ever, of keeping their 
soils in a neutral or slightly alkaline condition, so that liming at regular 
intervals is probably a necessity on most soils, and especially those which 
receive large annual applications of acid fertilizers. Serious troubles are 
likely to develop in such soils and it is desirable to take preventive measures 
by liming the land. This is the best known treatment of soils to prevent 
clubroot which infects cabbage and other members of this family. 

Seeds and Seed Sowing. — The utmost care should be exercised to 
obtain seed of the highest quality. Numerous experiments show that there 
is marked variation in the strains of our most common varieties of cabbage, 
tomatoes, lettuce, onions and other classes of vegetables. A superior 
strain may mean a profit of fifty to one hundred dollars more to the acre 
than one which is inferior. The most reliable seedsmen should be patron- 
ized. It may even pay to grow seed at home or to buy from specialists 
who have developed strains of unusual merit. 

A fine, moist seed-bed is essential to germination, whether the seeds 
are sown under glass or in the open ground. The surface of the ground 
should also be smooth, so that the seeds will be covered with a uniform 
depth of soil. 

Transplanting. — Vegetable growers find that transplanting is often a 
great advantage if not a necessity. It makes it possible to care for thou- 
sands of seedlings on a very small area. For example, it is easily possible 
to start 10,000 cabbage plants under a 3 x 6 foot hotbed sash, while ten 
sash are necessary to protect that number of seedlings after they have 
been transplanted. 

Vegetable plants should be transferred to their new quarters before 
they have become crowded and spindhng. The time of sowing should be 
carefully planned so that this condition will be avoided. 

Machine planters are largely used in field operations. If they are 
properly managed, they do the work fully as well as it can be done by hand. 
Whatever the method employed, the main essential is to bring a consider- 
able quantity of fine, moist soil into close contact with the roots. 

Starting Early Plants. — Soil to be used for starting early plants should 
be fine, free from stones and sticks and fairly rich. For cabbage or cauli- 
flower, it should be taken from land that has not grown either those or 
other members of the cabbage family for seven or eight years in order to 



22 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



avoid clubroot. The soil should also contain considerable humus, and some 
sand is a great advantage. If composted, two parts of loam, one part of 
rotten manure and one part of sand will give good results. It is always 
desirable to prepare and store the soil in the fall, so that it will be ready for 
use when wanted in February or March. 

Flats or shallow plant boxes are a great convenience in starting early 
plants. They may be made of new lumber or of empty store boxes. Chest- 
nut and cedar are very durable woods for this purpose. The thin pine 
boards of boot and shoe boxes are easily made over. A common plan is to 
rip soap and tomato boxes into sections, using any kind of thin lumber 




One of the Many Good Types of Seed Drills.^ 



for the bottom of the fiats. Plant boxes need not have a depth of more 
than two inches, though deeper boxes require less attention in watering 
because they hold more soil, and, consequently, more water. 

Seed sowing with such crops as cabbage and lettuce usually begins 
about the first of February in northern districts and earlier in the South. 
While the seed may be sown broadcast in fiats or beds, the better plan is 
to sow in rows about two inches apart. This is ample space for all of the 
vegetables which are ordinarily started under glass. If ten to twelve good 
seeds are dropped to each inch of furrow, there should be a satisfactory 
stand of plants. The furrows should be about one-quarter inch deep for 

1 Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses, 
VoL III. 



PRINCIPLES OF GARDENING 



23 



seeds sown under glass, with the exception of celery, which should barely 
be covered. After the seeds are sown, the furrows may be closed quickly 
by drawing a small pot label or the thumb and index finger along the 
rows. The soil should be firmed with a block and thoroughly watered. If 
possible, the soil should be made so moist that no additional watering 
will be necessary until the plants are up. 

Some fresh air should be admitted to the hotbed or greenhouse daily, 
unless the weather is unusually severe. This is essential to strong,, stocky 
plants. High temperatures and excessive moisture, both in the soil and 
atmosphere, are conducive to the growth of weak, spindling plants which 
are liable to damp off, and if they do not die, are very tedious to transplant. 
A safe rule is not to water unless it is absolutely necessary and then to 
water thoroughly. If the fiats are in hotbeds and the 
weather is severe, it will be necessary to protect the plants 
at night by means of mats those made of rye straw being 
the most satisfactory. 

In three to five weeks from sowing cabbage and many 
other vegetables the seedlings will be large enough to trans- 
plant. This operation may be performed any time after 
the rough or true leaves make their appearance. Soil such 
as has been described for seed sowing will be found satisfac- 
tory for this purpose. The flats or shallow plant boxes 
are also exceedingly useful receptacles in which to care for 
the plants until they are taken to the field. It is desirable 
to place about an inch of rotten manure in the bottom of 
the flat before filling it with soil. The soil should be 
moist enough to work well, and it is important to press it 
well along the sides and in the corners of the boxes. 

Cabbage, lettuce and other plants are set from an inch 
and one-half to two inches apart. If they are to be kept 
in the flats for an unusual length of time, more space should 
be allowed. The work of transplanting may be done rapidly by the use 
of a small, pointed stick, often called a dibble. This simple tool is used 
to make the holes as well as to press the soil against the small roots of the 
plants. Sometimes transplanting boards, with holes bored in check rows, 
are used, and then a dibble is employed to punch all the holes before any 
plants are dropped. This method provides for a uniform number of 
plants to each box. 

If the soil is just moist enough to work well during the transplanting, 
it will not be necessary to apply any water until the plants are well estab- 
lished. This is a great advantage, especially if the plants are placed in 
cold-frames and the weather is very severe. 

After the plants have been in the cold-frame from several days to a 




A Dibble. 1 

(One-fifth actual 
size.) 

Very handy for 
making holes 
in which toset 
small plants. 



1 Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. 
Vol. II. 



From Cornell Reading Courses, 



24 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

week, some fresh air may be admitted daily. Straw mats should be used at 
night. The mats will also be found useful in shading the plants in hotbeds 
and cold-frames. 

Plants should be hardened as much as possible before they are taken 
from the frames to the field. This is accomplished by gradually subjecting 
them to fresh air and by not watering more than is absolutely necessary. 
The latter factor is more important than fresh air and low temperatures. 

REFERENCES 
"Farm Gardening." Corbett. 
"Productive Vegetable Gardening." Lloyd. 
"The Practical Garden Book." Hume and Bailey. 
"Culinary Herbs." Kains. 
Cornell Reading Course, Garden Series 1. "Vegetable Gardening." 



CHAPTER 2 

Vegetables and Their Culture 

By R. L, Watts 

Dean and Director, School of Agriculture arid Experiment Station, 

The Pennsylvania State College 

Asparagus. — The farmer's garden is not complete without this popu- 
lar, hardy perennial, and it offers special inducements for cultivation near 
good local markets. 

Numerous varieties are catalogued by our seedsmen and nurserymen 
but Palmetto is most largely grown. It is vigorous in growth, the shoots 
are large and the plants are regarded as more resistant to rust than other 
well-known varieties. Some meritorious new varieties are being developed 
at the Asparagus Experiment Station, Concord, Mass., and prospective 
growers should keep in touch with the work there and test for themselves 
the new sorts as soon as they are available. 

It is universally conceded that asparagus thrives best in deep, rich, 
moist, sandy loams. Any soil, however, which will grow a satisfactory 
crop of corn will, with proper management, produce a good crop of aspar- 
agus. Thorough drainage is necessary. The character of the exposure is 
not important, though cuttings may be made earher in the spring on south- 
ern slopes than on northern or western exposures. 

It is exceedingly important to start with good stock. If a plot of 
even a few hundred plants is contemplated, it will pay to buy selected seed 
or roots from a specialist. The young plants are easily grown. A fertile 
plot should be chosen for the purpose and should be enriched still further 
by application of rotten stable manure at the rate of twenty-five tons to the 
acre. A good seed-bed should be prepared. Shallow furrows two feet 
apart should be made. The seeds should be dropped by hand at intervals 
of two or three inches and covered with an inch of soil. Radish seeds 
dropped eight to ten feet apart in the same drills with the asparagus will 
define the rows, since the radishes germinate within a few days, while the 
asparagus plants will not appear for about a month. It is quite an advan- 
tage to have the rows marked thus, so that the hand cultivator can be 
used before the asparagus plants are up. 

Experiments at The Pennsylvania State College and elsewhere show 
that it pays to plant only the strongest roots or crowns. In other words, 
it is a good business proposition to grow two or three times as many roots 
as are actually needed for the plat in mind, and then plant only the largest. 
The selection or grading of the roots should be done late in the fall after the 

25 



26 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



foliage has fallen. They may be kept in good condition until spring by 
packing in barrels with a little moist sand or sawdust. The barrels are 

then covered with 
straw and a few 
inches of soil added 
to protect the roots 
against severe freez- 
ing. 

The grower 
should bear in mind 
the fact that the as- 
p a r a g u s plantation 
should last at least 
ten years; therefore 
the soil should be 
prepared with the 
utmost care. The 
land should be heav- 
ily manured, plowed 
and then harrowed 
until it is thoroughly 
pulverized. 

Planting distan- 
ces vary greatly. If 
blanched o r white 
shoots are to be 
grown, there should 
be at least five feet 
between rows, in 
order to provide 
plenty of soil for 
ridging. If green 
shoots — and they are 
gaining in popular- 
ity on American 
markets — are to be 
grown, four feet be- 
tween rows will 
provide sufficient 
space for the use of 
horse cultivators, 
though many grow- 
ers prefer a distance of four and one-half feet. Two feet between plants in 
the row is the most common distance, whether white or green shoots 




Bunching Asparagus Ready for Market.^ 
It pays to grade to a uniform size relative to color, length 
and size of bunches. 



» Courtesy of Department of Horticulture, Pennsylvania State College. 



VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 27 

are to be grown. The crown of the asparagus comes nearer to the surface 
of the ground every year, because the new bulbs form somewhat higher 
than those from which the shoots of the previous season grew. This 
necessitates planting in trenches, which is also an advantage when the 
rows are to be ridged for the production of white shoots. 

The roots should be planted just as early in the spring as the ground 
can be prepared. It is not desirable to make the trenches any deeper than 
the soil is ordinarily plowed. The fleshy roots are set on a tiny mound of 
soil, spread out and covered at first to a depth of not more than two inches. 
If conditions for growth are favorable, the new plants will soon appear and 
the trenches should be filled in gradually as the plants increase in height. 

Thorough tillage is essential to the highest success. In new planta- 
tions it should begin early in the spring and continue until fall; old plan- 
tations should be cultivated as long as a horse and cultivator can be used 
without damaging the plants. It is especially important to disk the land 
as early as its condition will permit in the spring and again at the close of 
the cutting season, thus incorporating into the soil whatever manure has 
been applied. 

No specific rule can be given for the fertilization of asparagus. One of 
the best methods is the application of ten tons or more of stable manure to 
the 0,cre — late in the fall or early in the spring — supplemented with at 
least 1000 pounds of commercial fertilizer containing about 5 per cent of 
nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 6 per cent potash; half of the 
forniula to be used early in the spring and half at the close of the cutting 
season. Intensive growers use at least a ton to the acre. 

Some commercial growers cut approximately $50 worth of asparagus 
to the acre the second season from planting. If vigorous crowns have been 
used and a satisfactory growth obtained, this practice is not regarded as 
harmful to the plants. The cutting period of the third year should not 
last more than three or four weeks, but after the third year the usual 
practice is to cut until about the first of July. 

The length of the shoots depends upon the demands of the market. 
Ordinarily, they are cut about nine inches in length and tied into bunches 
four and one-half inches in diameter. Two thousand bunches to the acre 
is a good jdeld, but this number is often exceeded. Twenty cents a bunch 
is a fair average price. 

The asparagus beetle is the most destructive insect pest. In small 
plantations it is best controlled by setting coops of young chicks near the 
plot. Arsenate of lead is effective and is often used in young plantations 
and in old plantations after the cutting season. Air-slaked lime will also 
kill the larvae. 

Rust is practically the only disease to be feared. If it appears anywhere 
in the patch, the affected plants should be cut and burned before the foliage 
drops in the fall. Burning the tops is not regarded as a desirable practice 
in plantations which are free from rust. 

23 



28 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Bean. — The bean occupies a most important place among the farm 
garden crops. All classes of beans, being legumes, possess high nutritive 
value and may often be served as substitutes for meats wdth satisfaction to 
the consumer. 

Improved Golden Wax is an excellent wax-podded variety. Burpee 
Stringless is a leading dwarf green-podded bean. Goddard is a bush 
variety largely grown as a green-shelled bean. Lazy Wife is a superb 
green-podded pole bean. Early Leviathan is one of the best early lima beans 
and King of the Garden is valued as a lat3 lima. White Marrow is one of 
the best varieties to grow for soup and baking. 

The bean requires a well-drained soil. Sandy loams are preferred, 
but it is grown successfully in all types of soils. Apphcations of phosphoric 
acid are usually beneficial. Extensive plantings should not be made in the 
spring until the ground is thoroughly warm. Chances may be taken, 
however, in planting bush wax and green-podded varieties for the home 
table before conditions are ideal, and replanting can be made if the seeds 
decay or the plants are Idlled by frost. 

The rows of bush beans should be far enough apart to be cultivated 
with a horse, and the seeds dropped two to three inches apart in the rows. 
An excellent plan is to drop four beans to the hill, the hills being eight or 
nine inches apart. Pole beans are usually planted in hills 4x4 feet apart. 

Beet. — The beet may be grown in any good garden soil. The smoothest 
and finest roots are grown in sandy loams. Liberal applications of rotten 
stable manure are always beneficial. Excessive applications of nitrogen 
should be avoided. Potash and phosphoric acid are often used to advantage. 
Crosby Egyptian, Eclipse, Early Model and Egyptian are the leading 
early varieties. Edmond Blood turnip is good to follow early varieties. 

Seed for the early crop is sown in the spring as soon as the ground can 
be prepared. The seed-bed should be fine and as level as possible. Drills 
should be made a foot apart for wheel-hoe cultivation. About ten seeds 
to the foot of furrow should be sown. Plants of early varieties should be 
thinned to about three inches apart in the row, and late sorts to five or six 
inches. Clean tillage is essential. An earlier crop may be obtained by 
starting the plants in hotbeds and greenhouses and transplanting them to 
the open ground after danger from hard frosts has passed by. 

Brussels Sprouts. — This is a member of the cabbage family which is 
grown for fall consumption. The seed should be sown at the same time 
as for late cabbage and under the same conditions. Plants should be 
thinned to an inch apart. They should be transplanted early in July to 
rich, moist soil. Clean tillage should be given. Toward the end of 
summer, when the plants are well grown, the leaves should be cut off along 
the stalk, except a tuft at the top. This will induce the growth of large 
buds or "sprouts" in the axils of the removed leaf-stems. Brussels sprouts 
is regarded as a more delicate dish than cabbage. 

Cabbage. — This is universally regarded as one of the most important 



VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 



29 



farm garden crops. It fits in well with the general rotations practiced on 
American farms, and takes the place of potatoes after clover. It returns 
satisfactory profits wherever good markets are available. 

Jersey Wakefield is the leading early variety. Charleston Wakefield, 
which is somewhat larger and a few days later, is also popular. Copen- 
hagen Market is a round-headed early variety of special merit which has 
recently come into prominence. Early Summer, Succession and All Heart 
are very good midsummer varieties. Succession is also largely grown for 
late use, seed being sown later than for late varieties. Flat Dutch and 
Drumhead are well-known late sorts. Danish Ball Head is extensively 
grown for winter use. It possesses better keeping qualities than any other 
late variety. The heads are roundish and very solid. 




Four Strains op Jersey Wakefield Cabbage. 

GrcwTi at The Pennsylvania State College, which show extreme variations in the 
germinating power of the seeds. 

Cabbage requires a very rich soil for the best results. Stable manures 
are used extensively for this crop. Commercial fertilizers containing not less 
than four per cent of nitrogen and six to eight per cent of each of the mineral 
elements, are also applied at the rate of one-half ton to a ton to the acre. 

Seed for the early crop should be sown in the hotbed or greenhouse 
about ten weeks in advance of planting in the field. In most northern 
sections the seed is sown about the first of February and the seedlings are 
transplanted to the cold-frame about the first of March. With proper 
frame management they will be well hardened and ready for the field April 
10th or 15th. 

The late crop is usually started in May. Danish Ball Head requires 
a full season and it is a mistake to sow too late, though local climatic condi- 
tions should be carefully considered. 



30 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Ordinarily, the best planting distance for Jersey Wakefield is 14 x 26, 
Charleston Wakefield 16 x 28, Succession 18 x 28, Danish Ball Head 18 x 30; 
and other late flat-headed varieties 24 x 36 inches. Close planting is 
conducive to small heads, and most of our markets prefer heads that are 
solid but not too heavy. 

The early crop of the South is always marketed in crates of nearly one 
barrel capacity. Much of the crop in the North is sold by count, often 
by weight and frequently by the barrel. When the early crop is shipped 
in barrels it is important that they be well ventilated. 

The late crop is stored in a great variety of ways. Although burying 
is troublesome, no other plan keeps the cabbage in better condition. The 

soil must be well drained. 
Windrows of cabbage, three 
heads side by side and two 
heads above, should be placed 
so as to drain the water away 
from the cabbage. The cab- 
bage is then covered as nearly 
as possible with a plow and 
the work finished with hand 
shovels. Four or five inches 
of soil is sufficient covering and 
then enough manure is added 
to keep out frost. In central 
Pennsylvania, for example, 
four inches of soil and four 
inches of manure will keep the 
cabbage in perfect condition, 
provided the location is pro- 
tected on the north and west 
from hard winds. There is no 
advantage in burying cabbage 
with the roots on. The best 
plan is to cut the stems with 
a sharp hatchet, leaving stubs four or five inches long for convenience in 
handling the crop. 

Cabbage should be grown in a long-period rotation in order to avoid 
losses from clubroot, and the land should be kept well limed as a preventive 
measure against this most dreaded disease. The common green cabbage 
worm is best controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead. 

Carrot. — The carrot is becoming more popular in America every year. 
It is easily grown in any rich soil, but attains its best development in sandy 
loams. By using early and late varieties and by making successive sowings, 
it is possible to have roots for sale and for the home table from June until 
late in the fall, and then the crop may be stored for winter use. 




A Plant Transferred with Plenty op Earth 
IS NOT Checked in Growth. 



VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 



31 



There are numerous varieties of carrots, but the best known early- 
varieties are Early Short Scarlet and Early Scarlet Horn; for medium 
early, Model, Danvers Half Long Orange and Danvers Half Long Scarlet, 
Oxheart and Rubicon are popular. Long Orange is the leading late long- 
rooted variety. 

For the early crop, seed should be sown as early in the spring as the 
ground can be prepared. It is customary to allow about a foot of space 
between rows for the early varieties and fifteen inches for the late. The 
early kinds may be thinned to stand two or three inches apart in the row 




Strain Tests of Cabbage at The Pennsylvania State College, 
Showing First Cutting. 

Note that only two heads of cabbage were marketable at the first cutting in Row 13. 



while the late sorts should be four to six inches apart. Fairly liberal appli- 
cations of phosphoric acid and potash are considered valuable for the 
carrot. It is easily kept until late winter by storing in pits or in cool 
cellars, where the roots should be covered with moist sand or soil. 

Cauliflower. — Cauliflower is considered the most refined member of 
the cabbage family. The heads are more delicate in quality than cabbage, 
kale or even Brussels sprouts. It is also more difficult to grow than cab- 
bage. This crop has two marked tendencies: first, not to form heads; 
and second, for the heads to "bolt" or "button" instead of forming hard, 



32 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

compact heads. The failure of this crop is very frequently attributed to 
the use of poor seed, and there is no question but that good seed is a most 
important factor in the growing of a satisfactory'' crop of cauliflower. 

The early crop is started under glass and the plants are handled in the 
same way as cabbage. It is important, however, not to check the growth 
of the plants at any time, as this may cause "bolting" or "buttoning." 

Seed for the late crop should be so"wn a trifle later than for cabbage. 
It is important to sow thinly so that every plant will have plenty of space 
for its full development. 

Cauliflower should be planted in even richer soil than cabbage. It is 
especially desirable to use an abundance of rotten manure. Planting 
distances should be about the same as for early cabbage. When the heads 
are an inch or two in diameter, the leaves should be bent over them, or 
perhaps tied together over the heads, in order to protect the latter from 
rain and sunshine. The markets demand pure white heads. 

Celery. — Celery occupies a most important place in American gardens, 
though it does not receive as much attention as it should. When the 
methods of culture are well understood, it may be grown with great ease, 
and no vegetable is more appreciated when it appears on the farmer's 
table. An immense quantity of celery which is grown in muck soils finds 
its way to our great markets. The crop is also well adapted to rich, sandy 
loams, but any soil which is properly fertilized will grow an excellent crop 
of celery. The two great essentials are a liberal supply of plant food and 
an abundance of moisture. Stable manure is universally regarded as the 
best fertilizer. It should be applied in a decayed condition and worked 
well into the soil as a top dressing rather than plowed under. Commercial 
fertilizers are also extensively used for this crop. As a rule the fertilizers 
employed by commercial growers contain four to six per cent of nitrogen 
and from eight to ten per cent of each of the mineral elements. A ton to the 
acre, mixed directly with the soil after plowing, is a very common applica- 
tion, and some growers use doul)le this amount. 

There are two general classes of celery: First, the so-called self- 
blanching, best represented by Golden Self-Blanching, which is more 
generally grown in this country than any other sort; and, second, the green 
varieties, such as Winter King, Winter Queen and Giant Pascal. The dwarf 
self-blanching varieties are most popular among commercial growers 
because they are easily blanched. Green winter varieties are better in 
quality than the self-blanching and are grown more largely for winter use. 

Too much care cannot be exercised in purchasing celery seed. The 
grower should make certain that the stock is good, because many of the 
failures of celery growers are attributable to poor seed. The best seed of 
the self-blanching varieties is gro\\Ti in France. 

For the early crop, seed should be sown in hotbeds or greenhouses 
after the first of March. It is usually a mistake to sow earlier than this 
date, because the plants are likely to become crowded in the beds before 



VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 



33 



planting time in the field, a condition which may check their growth and 
cause them to produce seed shoots instead of marketable stock. On account 
of the very small size of the seed, there is always likelihood of sowing too 
thickly. The plants should be thinned if that happens, and in a month or 
five weeks transplanted one and one-half to two inches apart in flats or beds. 
In the latter a constant supply of moisture should be maintained until the 
plants are set in the field. 




Celery Under Irrigation, Skinner System. 

Seed for the late crop should Ijc sown in the spring as soon as the ground 
can be prepared. 

When boards are to be used for blanching the early crop, it is customary 
to allow about two feet of space between rows and to space the plants three 
to five inches apart in the row. In most sections of the North, plants 
should not be set in the open ground before May 10th. The crop will 
stand considerable cold, but heavy frosts almost invariably check the growth 



34 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



and have a tendency to cause the production of seed stalks. The late crop 
should have more space and it is not uncommon to allow four to five feet 
between rows, the distance depending upon the method to be used in 
blanching. 

The mulching system of celery culture makes the early crop much more 
certain. The plan includes a mulch of three to five inches of fresh horse 
manure placed between the rows immediately after the plants are set out. • 

This conserves soil 

moisture, prevents 
weed growth, renders 
tillage unnecessary and 
supplies food to the 
plants after each rain. 
Boards are used 
almost entirely for 
blanching the early 
crop. They are placed 
along both sides of the 
rows and held in place 
by any convenient de- 
vice at hand. From 
ten days to two weeks 
are required to blanch 
the crop. The boards 
may be used over and 
over again; with care 
they will last fifteen 
years. 

The late crop is 
blanched by means of 
ridging with earth. 
This work should not 
begin until the cooler 
weather arrives in 
early September. The 
work of ridging pro- 
ceeds imtil about the 
middle of October and commercial growers begin to store the crop soon 
after the first of November. Various methods of storage are in common 
use. One of the best is to dig trenches ten or twelve inches wide and not 
quite as deep as the height of the plants. The plants are placed close to- 
gether in the trenches and covered with boards, which are nailed together in 
the form of a trough. The boards afford ample protection until freezing 
weather occurs and then additional covering is provided by placing 




Good Celery Well Prepared for Market. ^ 



1 Courtesy of Department of Horticulture, Peonsylvania State College. 



VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 35 

manure or straw over them. The plants should be dry when stored and 
they should not be unnecessarily exposed to sun and hard, drying winds. 

Cucumbers. — Most farmers are familiar with the ordinary method of 
growing cucumbers. If hotbeds are available, it is best to start a few hills 
under glass. This is a very simple operation. A good plan is to fill quart 
berry baskets with soil containing a large proportion of rotten manure; 
drop about eight seeds in each basket and after the plants are up thin them 
to two or three. See that the boxes are not lacking in moisture at any time. 
The seed should be sown not more than four weeks in advance of the time 
suitable for planting in the field. Overgrown plants are a disadvantage. 
It is very much better not to use plants more than a month old. Whether 
the seed is sown under glass or in the open ground, the soil should be made 
very rich by using plenty of rotten manure. Planting distances vary, but 
5x5 feet will be found satisfactory when the ground is very fertile. There 
are several strains of White Spine which are popular for general planting. 
For picklers, Chicago Pickling, Boston Pickling and Fordhook Pickling 
are popular. 

The striped cucumber beetle is one of the most serious enemies of this 
crop. The most thorough means of prevention is to cover the plants with 
mosquito netting or with wooden frames with netting over them. Air- 
slaked lime, sprinkled on the plants, is usually effective as a repellant. 
Tobacco dust may also be used. 

Eggplant. — The eggplant is often overlooked in the planting of the 
farmer's garden. This crop thrives best in a warm climate and for this 
reason many of the northern gardeners do not attempt to cultivate it. 
It may be grown, however, in all parts of the North, especially if the plants 
are started under glass and planted in rich, moist soil. It is also important 
to select an early variety such as Early Long Purple. The fruit of this 
variety is not as large as that of New York Improved or Black Beauty, 
but it will be found quite satisfactory for the home table. A high tempera- 
ture is required for starting the plants; therefore it is best not to sow too 
early. They should be transplanted into two-inch pots and later into three 
or four-inch pots, and then the gardener can transfer them to the field 
without checking their growth. 

Horse Radish. — There should be at least a few plants of horse radish 
in every farm garden. It is easily grown in any moist, rich soil. The crop 
is easily propagated by root cuttings, which are made when the roots are 
dug for market or for the home table; that is, the small lateral roots are 
trimmed from the large ones and saved for planting. It is customary to 
cut the roots intended for propagation square at the upper end and slanting 
at the lower end so that you will know which end to plant up when they are 
set in the garden. 

Kale. — This crop is quite successful in some parts of the South and 
is seen occasionally in northern districts. It requires the same cultural 
conditions as cabbage. The most prominent varieties are Imperial Long 



36 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Standing, Dwarf German, Dwarf Curled Scotch and Fall Green Curled 
Scotch. Sowing should be made about midsummer in order that the plants 
may attain full size before cold weather. The plants are thinned to stand 
eight to ten inches apart, according to variety. 

Kohl-Rabi. — This vegetable is also called "turnip-rooted cabbage." 
It is easily grown in any rich soil. Plants may be started under glass, or the 
seed may be sown direct in the open ground and the plants thinned to about 
eight inches apart in the row. Green Vienna and Earliest Erfurt are the 
leading varieties. It is possible to have fresh roots in the garden from the 
middle of June until late fall, when they may be stored for winter use. 

Leek. — This vegetable requires the same cultural conditions as onions. 
It is regarded as milder and more tender than the onion. The seed should 
be sown in the spring as soon as the ground can be worked. Market 
gardeners often transplant the seedlings in July, so that the crop will be 
ready to use in the fall. It is always an advantage to clip the tops at 
transplanting time. 

Lettuce. — Most farmers are perfectly familiar with the methods which 
are ordinarily employed in growing lettuce. The usual practice is to sow 
the seed broadcast in small beds. A very much. better plan is to sow in 
hotbeds or in a sunny window of the house and transplant the seedlings to 
the open ground after it is dry enough to work. This method will insure 
an earlier crop than is possible from sowang directly in the open ground. 
If it is desired to make sowing out of doors, the seed should be drilled in 
rows about a foot apart, and the plants thinned to stand from six to eight 
inches apart in the row. This will result in much finer heads than is 
possible by the broadcast method. There is a long list of varieties from 
which to select. Grand Rapids is grown largely under glass and is also 
suitable for culture out of doors. Wayahead is a comparatively new but 
most excellent head variety for out-door culture.' Big Boston is one of the 
leading varieties for frame culture and for sandy and muck soils. All 
Heart and Sensation are also good varieties. Hanson, Iceberg and Brittle 
Ice are popular varieties of the "crisp-head" class. 

Sandy soils are selected when an early crop is desired, though this 
vegetable may be grown with entire success on any soil properly- fertilized. 

Rotten stable manure is undoubtedly the best form of fertilizer. It 
may be used at the rate of twenty or more tons to the acre. Commercial 
fertilizers are also used extensively for the lettuce crop. The early crop 
may be started under glass as previously explained for cabbage. 

Muskmelon. — The remarks made concerning the cucumber apply 
equally well to the muskmelon, although this vegetable requires better 
cultural conditions than the cucumber. By starting the plants under 
glass, practically every farmer could have a liberal supph^ of muskmelons. 
It requires more heat and a longer season than the cucumber, but plants 
which are W'ell started by the time it is safe to plant them out of doors 
should mature a satisfactory crop, especially if the soil is well enriched 



VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 



37 



with rotten manure. This vegetable will not thrive in any northern section 
unless the soil is well filled with organic matter. The planting distances 
for muskmelons should be more liberal than for cucumbers. Among the 
varieties which are popular throughout the country may be mentioned 
Rocky Ford, Paul Rose, Netted Gem, Hackensack, Osage, Emerald Gem, 
Eden Gem and Burrell Gem. 

Onion. — No vegetable is found so universally in the farmer's garden 
as the onion. Indeed, it is rare that the onion is omitted from the home 
garden. A long list of varieties is available. Among the best yellow kinds 




Onions Under Skinner System of Irrigation.^ 



may be mentioned Danvers, Southport Yellow Globe and Strasburg. 
Weatherfield is the best known red onion and Southport Red Globe is a 
general favorite in many parts of the country. Silver Skin and Southport 
White Globe are popular white onions. The Egyptian (Perennial Tree 
Onion) is a valuable variety for fall planting in the North. Prizetaker is 
exceedingly valuable for starting under glass and transplanting in the 
open ground. 

The onion thrives best in a moist, sandy loam, but may be grown with 
success in any rich soil. It is important to plant the seed in ground which 
is practically free from weed seeds. An excellent plan is to precede this 
vegetable with a crop like corn or cabbage which requires clean tillage. 

^ Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



38 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

The soil may also be highly enriched the preceding year by the application 
of a large quantity of stable manure, and weed seeds should be completely 
destroyed by the time the onions are started. Commercial fertihzers are 
also largely employed for the onion. It is not uncommon to use a fertilizer 
containing four per cent nitrogen and six to eight per cent of phosphoric 
acid and potash, at the rate of a ton to the acre. The fertilizer should be 
well mixed with the soil before any planting is done. 

The bulk of the mature bulbs which are sold on American maricets 
is grown from seed sown in the open ground. The most common spacing 
between rows is a foot, and seed is sown sufficiently thick to give eight to 
twelve plants to a foot of furrow. Ordinarily four and one-half pounds of 
good seed to an acre will give the proper stand of plants. Seed more than 
a year old should never be used. The transplanting method, often referred 
to as the new onion culture, provides for sowing seed under glass and setting 
the plants in the open ground after danger of hard freezing has passed. 
Prizetaker is the leading variety for this purpose. The most common plan 
is to sow seed in Januarj^ or February. After the tops attain a height of 
five inches they are clipped back every week to about four inches, and when 
planted in the field they are clipped to three or three and one-half inches. 
Bulbs of extra size for exhibition purposes may be obtained by starting the 
plants under glass in the fall, clipping the tops repeatedly, as explained, 
until they are set in the field, about May 10th in the North. Most farmers 
grow the bulk of their crop from sets which are planted as early in the spring 
as the ground can be worked. This is the most certain method of procuring 
a crop, though as large bulbs cannot be obtained as from the transplanting 
method. Clean tillage is absolutely essential to the success of a crop of 
onions, and this requires a certain amount of hand-weeding and hoeing 
between the plants. The mature bulbs for winter use are pulled after most 
of the tops have turned yellow and are partly dead. The bulbs are thrown 
together in windrows for a few days until partly dry and then placed in 
crates or bags which are hauled to sheds or well-ventilated buildings. 
Onions may be kept throughout the winter in a room where the temperature 
may be controlled, or allowed to freeze and then be covered with hay and 
kept in a frozen condition throughout the winter. The latter plan is very 
satisfactory and should be more generally used by farmers. 

Bunching onions are most largely grown from sets, though many 
gardeners grow excellent green onions from seed sown in the open ground. 
The Prizetaker produces a particularly mild onion. Onion sets are grown 
by sowing the seed more thickly than is done for mature bulbs. There is 
no reason why every farmer should not grow his own sets. A good plan is 
to sow the seed very thickly in furrows which are about two inches wide and 
one-quarter inch deep. The plants come up so thickly that it is impossible 
for any of the bulbs to attain a large size. The sets are easily kept over 
winter in any dry room where alternate thawing and freeing does not occur. 

Parsley. — There should be a supply of parsley in every farmer's 



VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 39 

garden. It is found useful as a flavoring for soups and other dishes 
and also for garnishing purposes. Seed may be sown under glass and the 
plants grown in the same way as explained for cabbage. The crop may 
also be started out of doors, the rows being spaced a foot or fifteen inches 
apart and the plants thinned to stand one foot apart in the row. Parsley 
thrives in any moist, fertile soil. Rapid growth may be encouraged by 
top-dressing with nitrate of soda. 

Parsnip. — Parsnips are grown successfully in various types of soil. 
It is a long-season crop, hence should be sown as early as possible in the 
spring, and the soil should be made as rich as possible by the application of 
rotten manure. The deep, sandy loams are preferred. Guernsey, Hollow 
CrowTi and Early Short Round are leading varieties. The rows should be 
from fifteen to eighteen inches apart and the plants should stand from six to 
seven inches apart in the row. The roots may be sold or used on the home 
table any time after they have attained full size, but the usual custom is 
to leave most of them in the ground until spring, because freezing improves 
their flavor. It is rare that the roots are damaged by the hardest winter 
freezing. 

Pea. — The pea is universally popular in American farm gardens. It 
is highly appreciated because it is very early and also very nutritious. This 
crop should be started just as soon as the ground is dry enough to work. 
It is not uncommon to make plantings the latter part of March. The early, 
smooth varieties are considered hardier than the wrinkled kinds. Alaska 
and Extra Early are well-known varieties of the smooth type. Gradus, 
Thomas Laxton and Nott's Excelsior are popular wrinkled kinds. Most 
farmers plant a few rows of medium or late varieties, such as Improved 
Stratagem and Telegraph. These varieties are excellent in quality and 
very prolific. The pea thrives best in cool, moist but well-drained soil. 
When very late plantings are made it is desirable to plant in trenches ; cover 
at first with about two inches of soil and, after the plants are up, gradually 
fill in the trenches until the ground is level. This deep covering is favorable 
to moisture conditions and the ground is also cooler about the roots, which 
is an advantage. The dwarf varieties, such as Alaska and Extra Early, 
do not need support, while the late kinds should be supported by means of 
brush or wire trellises. 

Pepper. — The pepper requires practically the same conditions as 
the tomato, although more heat is beneficial to its growth. For this 
reason the plant thrives best in warm, sandy soils. An abundance of 
decayed organic matter is a decided advantage in northern districts, which 
are not very favorable to peppers. Among the mild-fruited varieties may 
be mentioned Bull Nose, Chinese Giant and Ruby King. The Neapolitan 
is a very early variety that is popular throughout the North. Long Red 
Cayenne and True Red Chili are popular pungent-fruited varieties. The 
seed should be sown under glass about the time tomatoes are started. 
The plants of most varieties should have eighteen inches between them 



40 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

in the row and the rows should be far enough apart to use a horse culti- 
vator. 

Radish. — The radish is common to nearly all farm gardens. It does 
best in deep, rich, loamy soils. Though grown successfully when the seed 
is broadcast, it is better to sow in drills a foot apart and use enough seed to 
produce plants an inch or two apart; w^hile late varieties should have two 
to five inches between plants in the row. Among the early varieties which 
are popular with home and commercial gardeners may be mentioned 
Earliest White, Round Reel Forcing and Scarlet Frame. French Breakfast 
is a well-known radish, it is bright carmine above and clear white below. 
The first sowing should be made as soon as the ground can be worked and 
successive sowings should be made from week to week. 

Rhubarb. — ^Rhubarb requires a deep, rich, moist soil. It is propagated 
commonly by roots. Annual applications of manure should be made in 
order to maintain the supply of organic matter in the soil and to furnish an 
abundant supply of plant food. Nitrate of soda may be used to advantage 
as a top dressing. It is ordinarily planted 3 x 4 or 4 x 4 feet apart. Vic- 
toria and Linnaeus are leading varieties. 

Salsify. — -Salsify or "oyster plant" is not as generally grown as it 
should be in American gardens. This root crop requires the same cultural 
conditions as the parsnip. It is also a long-season crop and, therefore, the 
seed should be sown as early as possible in the spring. The roots are stored 
in the same manner during the winter as parsnips and will not suffer from 
freezing if left in the ground until spring. 

Spinach. — Spinach is more largely grown in the South than in northern 
districts, although it should be a most important vegetable in all parts of 
the country. The usual practice is to sow the seed late in the fall, and the 
crop will be ready to harvest the following spring. In the North, the better 
plan is to sow very early in the spring. A successful method is to sow 
broadcast on the frozen ground and then cover the seed very lightly with 
fine, rotten manure. This vegetable requires a rich, constantly-moist soil 
to obtain the best results. Late plantings should be made in drills and the 
plants thinned to stand from five to six inches apart. 

Squash. — The squash requires practically the same cultural condi- 
tions as cucumbers, but much more space is required. If the ground 
is a rich garden loam, the hills should be at least 10 x 10 feet apart, 
and more liberal spacing for the winter varieties will be an advantage in 
very rich soil. Summer squash need not be planted any farther apart than 
cucumbers, or even less space will meet their requirements. Early White 
Bush, Yellow Bush and Summer Crookneck are popular summer varieties. 
Hubbard, Warted Hubbard, Golden Hubbard and Boston Marrow are 
largely grown winter kinds. Squash must be stored in buildings w^here there 
is no freezing during the winter and a uniform temperature of 50° F. is 
most favorable to successful storage. 

Sweet Corn. — Sweet corn requires the same conditions as field corn, 



VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 



41 



if a good crop is expected. Among the early varieties which are popular 
and largely grown may be mentioned Fordhook and White Cob Cory. 
Golden Bantam matures somewhat later than these varieties and is supe- 
rior in quality. Popular midsummer varieties are Cosmopolitan and 
Sweet Orange. Country Gentleman and Stowell Evergreen are the best 
known late varieties. Experiments made at various experiment stations 
show that it pays to select seed for sweet corn with as much care as for field 
corn. If space is available it pays to start one or two hundred hills in soil 
under glass by sowing seed two weeks before it is considered safe to set the 
plants in the open ground. This will make an early crop and insure a good 
stand of plants. 




Some Commercial Ttpes op Sweet Potatoes.^ 

A — Black Spanish. B — A Long, C3'lindrical Type. C — Jerse}' Group. D — Red 

Bermuda. E — Southern Queen. 



Sweet Potatoes. — The sweet potato is not universally grown in the 
farm gardens of the United States. It thrives only in warm soils and pre- 
fers one which is sandy in character. There are numerous varieties of 
sweet potatoes, some of the most popular being Big Stem Jersey, Yellow 
Jersey, Red Jersey, Southern Queen, Georgia Yam, Red Bermuda, Florida 
and Pierson. It is propagated by slips and these are obtained by bedding 
the tubers in fine soil with the proper amount of heat and moisture. The 
tubers soon send out sprouts and produce rooted plants which are set in the 
field after all danger of frost has passed. Field planting should not be 

'From Farmers' Bulletin 324, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 





^^B^?" 








•^^m^P'i^s^p 


fc 






TV'. '*' 


'W^ 


1 


















I^H^^^HHwk, jmBM 


1 




m- ^ 


^' -fi 


■IP': ..^WjV *■>": V * 'P ■ '• 


-^ 




^K^ ^ 


r. M 


^-■;>;,7- %-A'\^.Mi^^^: 


^"^ 




B " M 


WP^i' 


^' ■ . '^ft "i|^"'-#5i 


i*^'; 




m 


f 






^ 


w 


' -, ^3:;-->^^ /^^a^i,-^.. 1 



* Courtesy of Virginia-Carolina Chemical Company, Richmond, Va. 
3ooks. 

42 



From V.-C. Fertilizer Crop 



VEGETABLES AND THEIR CULTURE 43 

attempted until the ground is thoroughly warm. The tubers require the 
same conditions for storage as squash. 

Tomato. — This is unquestionably one of the most important crops of 
American home gardens as well as commercial plantations. It does well 
in a great variety of soil types. The sandy loams are preferred, though 
very heavy yields have been obtained in clay and silt soils. Earliana is the 
best loiown and most widely planted very early variety. It is fair in 
quality and very productive. Bonny Best matures soon after Earhana 
and is superior in some respects. Chalk Jewel and June Pink are also 
popular early varieties. Among the leading late varieties may be men- 
tioned Stone and Matchless. Beauty and Trucker Favorite are desirable 
varieties of pink fruits. Good seed is highly essential to this crop and not 
a few of our commercial growers make careful selection from their own 
plantations. Seed for the early crop should be sown under glass not later 
than the 1st of March and, if extremely early tomatoes are desired, the 
20th of February will not be too soon. The finest plants are obtained by 
first transplanting the plants one and one-half to two inches apart and then 
three or four inches apart, and finally into pots which vary in size from four 
to six inches. If the plants contain a blossom or two or perhaps a cluster 
of fruit when set in the field, a few ripe tomatoes should be available by the 
tenth of June and a large quantity should be available for market before 
the first of August. The plants should be hardened as well as possible 
before setting in the field, but no more water than is absolutely necessary 
should be applied. Such plants will stand a considerable amount of 
freezing in the field. Tomatoes of a superior quality may be obtained by 
training the vines to single stems. The usual practice is to make the rows 
about four feet apart and set the plants about fourteen to eighteen inches 
apart in the row. The plants are secured to stakes or wire trellises and the 
lateral branches are pinched out as fast as they appear. When a plant 
attains a height of four or five feet a trellis is always used and this causes the 
rapid development of fruit all along the stem. This method, however, 
should not be practiced unless there is plenty of labor to attend to the 
training. 

Turnips. — Our farmers are familiar with the growing of turnips because 
they are produced not only for the home table but also to be stored during 
the winter for the farm stock. Roots most uniform in size are obtained by 
sowing in drills a foot to fifteen inches apart and thinning the plants to 
four to five inches apart. The roots are usually preserved during the winter 
by burying or covering with moist soil in pits. Some of the most popular 
varieties are White Milan, Red Purple Top, White Flat Dutch, Purple 
Top White Globe, White Egg and Yellow Globe. 

Watermelon. — The watermelon requires the same cultural condi- 
tions as muskmelon. It should be planted in hills 8 x 10 feet to 
10 X 10 feet apart. A bountiful supply of rotten manure should be used 
in the hills. Commercial fertilizers can also often be employed to advan- 

26 



44 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

tage. Planting should not occur until there is no danger of frosts. Among 
the varieties which are popular may be mentioned Kleckley Sweet, Kolb 
Gem, Cuban Queen, Halbert Honey, Dixie and Sugar Stick. Cole and 
Fordhook are very hardy varieties desirable for planting in northern 
districts. 

REFERENCES 
"How to Grow Vegetables." French. 
"Garden Farming." Corbett. 
"Vegetable Gardening." Watts. 
"Sweet Potato Culture." Fitts. 
"Market Gardening." Yeaw. 

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 137. "Cabbage Experiments." 
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 

196. "Tomatoes." 

199. "Onions." 

203. "Cabbage and Cauliflower." 

231. "Vegetable Growing." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

324. "Sweet Potatoes." 

354. "Onion Culture." 

434. "The Home Production of Onion Seed and Sets." 

433. "Cabbage." 

620 and 548. "Storing and Marketing Sweet Potatoes." 

642. "Tomato Growing in the South." 



CHAPTER 3 

The Farm vegetable Garden 

By Paul Work 

Superintendent and Instructor, Department of Vegetable Gardening, 

Cornell University 

In the rural sections the vegetable gardens adjoining the homes of the 
farmers show marked differences. In some sections almost no attempt is 
made to supply the home table with home-grown vegetables. In other 
districts the gardens are of good size, well planned and uniformly well 
cared for throughout the whole season. Those who devote no attention to 
the home garden little realize the advantages missed through this neglect. 
The diet of these families is usually not well balanced. Meats and cereals 
probably predominate and the elements which are supplied in vegetable 
food are lacking. These elements are not so much concerned in furnishing 
energy and building body material as they are in supplj-ing the flavoring 
and mineral requirements. Moreover, man, as well as animals, requires 
a certain amount of more or less bulky feed. These factors in the diet are 
seemingly of minor importance, but are, nevertheless, absolutely essential. 
Just as no animal can thrive without a small amount of salt, so the absence 
of these dements from the table results in the weakening of the whole 
system and the undermining of the general health. The old-fashioned idea 
that one must necessarily be in poor physical condition when spring opens, 
is based upon the absence of vegetables and fruits from the old-fashioned 
winter diet. Nowadays, when canning is much more economically prac- 
ticed and when the products of the garden and orchard are to be had during 
every month of the year, the old-time spring tonic is less in demand. 

The value of the home garden must be further considered in its contri- 
bution to the joy of living and to the relish of a good table. Much can be 
said in praise of the endless array of delicacies which may be i^rovided by 
the skilful housewife w^ho is in league with the skilful gardener. 

The economic value of the products which the home garden offers has 
been investigated by a number of experiment stations. At the Illinois 
Station it was shown that the average annual gross return from a half acre 
amounted to $105 through a period of five years, with an average cost, 
including all labor and materials, of $30. Some contend that the ordinary- 
farmer cannot afford to devote the requisite amount of time and energy 
to the cultivation of the garden. It makes demands upon him which conflict 
with the demands of his fields and crops. It is true that a delay of a day 

45 



46 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

in the planting of a field of oats may result in a very serious reduction in the 
yield. On the other hand, it is possible to so plan the work that both crops 
and garden receive the best of care. In fact, one is impressed with the 
correlation which exists between good farming and good gardening. It is 
largely a matter of management. 

It is the aim of this article to offer some suggestions and general hints 
on garden making which may be of service to those trying to meet a given 
set of conditions. Rules are subject to numerous exceptions depending 
on conditions of soil, climate and exposure. These vary so widely that each 
must expect to work out his own salvation. An increasing measure of 
success from year to year is the reward to him who is wilhng to see and to 
think and to do the best that he knows, even though his knowledge in the 
beginning be exceedingly meagre. 

Choosing a Site. — The gardener should carefully avoid the mistake of 
undertaking to cultivate a plot which is too large. A small area well kept 
and intensively managed will be much more satisfactory. It is safe to say 
that half an acre is the extreme for the ordinary family. Such a plot may be 
expected to yield an abundance for summer and autumn use, as well as for 
canning and storage. It is better to start with a garden too small than one 
too large. 

On most farms, some choice as to location is possible. The garden 
should be near the buildings. It should be within easy reach of the house- 
wife so that she may gather the products just as she is ready to use them. 
A distant garden seldom receives the care which is required. If the location 
is convenient, the hired men can make use of odds and ends of time which 
would otherwise be wasted. The cultivator which has finished its task a 
half hour before noon may loosen the crusted soil of many rows. 

A southeasterly exposure is earlier and ordinarily offers protection from 
the severest winds. Roots of trees and shade of buildings should be care- 
fully avoided. 

If it is possible to choose from different types of soil, it is best to select 
a sandy loam. Heavy soil, the clays and clay loams, are lumpy when dry 
and are sticky and unworkable when wet. They cannot be cultivated early 
in the spring. On the other hand, the lightest sands ought to be avoided, 
in spite of the fact that they are loose and friable and may be tilled even when 
wet. They are not retentive of moisture or fertility. Of course, high 
fertility is of prime importance, but a soil may be improved in this respect 
more readily than in physical character. Freedom from weed-seed and 
disease must also be sought. 

The Garden Plan. — Good planning is no less important in the garden 
than on the farm, although it is more often neglected here than in connec- 
tion with the broader fields. During the winter the thoughtful gardener 
gathers about himself a supply of catalogues, a few good garden books and 
bulletins, together with paper, pencil and ruler. Furthermore, he refers 
to the concise but comprehensive notes which he has made during the 



^ 



THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 47 

previous season and which enable him to take advantage of points which 
would otherwise have escaped his mind. It is better to till a garden which 
is smaller by a few square yards and to keep an adequate record than to 
neglect this most important part of the gardener's task. The returns in 
later years will amply repay for the time and energy involved. 

The first task is to decide what is wanted, making a list of crops, having 
in mind the likes and dislikes of the family. This should provide for an 
even distribution of products throughout the season and an adequate 
supply to be canned or stored for winter use. It should also take into con- 
sideration adaptation to climate, soil and space available. 

In most cases the rows should be laid out lengthwise of the garden, and 
the spacing for all but the most intensive crops should be wide enough for 



~. Plowed a^red^ 

pla^nted in - 
rows 3)$^ 



v*itr cowberries 8ft- 

__^ Aspc^rovO OS 6?f 

Rhubd^rb Gooaebernes Curmrm 8ft. 

f?f\9?p berries §?t. 

Rr\c,pbp.rt-ifi9, ldl <^cK berries ^f^ 

^ fiJAckbp^rnee) m- 

Grovpep) on 

A Farm Garpen Laid Out for Convenience in Working.* 

horse cultivation. At the same time, the possibility of a much smaller 
garden to be tilled with wheel hoe and hand hoe may well be considered. 
The permanent crops such as asparagus and rhubarb ought to be placed at 
one side to avoid interference with tillage operations. In this same section 
of the garden the hotbeds and cold-frames may well be placed. Early 
crops should usually be kept together in order that the space made vacant 
by their removal may be more conveniently utilized. Attention should 
also be devoted to the symmetry, balance and neat appearance of the 
garden. 

Fertility. — The first requirement for garden soil, as well as for farm 
soil, is good drainage. In case of surplus water, tile drains should be laid. 
Many soils which are not recognized as being especially wet are very 
materially benefited by drainage. 

The farm gardener enjoys at least one great advantage over the city 

J Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From " Farm Management," by Warren. 



48 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 




A — Transplanting Board and 
Dibble in Use. 



gardener. He has available an ample supply of stable manure. This 
material is the main reliance for the maintenance of fertility. Manure 
supplies nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, the only chemical elements 
which are frequently lacking, and if the quantity applied is sufficient to 
maintain the humus content of the soil, there will be an abundance of these 
three elaments. Manure that has been in the pile for several months is 
ordinarily preferred, but fresh material may be plowed under each fall 

with the assurance that it will be 
fairly well decayed and ready to aid 
the plants by spring. 

In case the garden soil is of a 
refractory character, special treat- 
ment will be necessary. Heavy soils 
may be improved by hauling sand or 
gravel, by the addition of ashes, by 
the use of lime and especially by lib- 
eral applications of manure. 

The lime content of the soil 
must in any case be maintained. 
Applications of air-slaked lime or 
finely pulverized limestone at the 
rate of a ton per acre every two to 
four years, are usually sufficient. If 
hydrated or quicklime be used the 
quantities may be reduced by ap- 
proximately a quarter and a half 
respectively. 

Tillage. — Every farmer realizes 
the clanger incident to the plowing 
of the soil when it is wet. If such an 
error is harmful in ordinary farm 
practice it is doubly disastrous in 
the garden. Vegetable plants insist upon favorable growth conditions. 
In case the soil is shallow, it ought to be gradually deepened from 
year to year. The plowing should be done in the fall and the soil 
should be left in furrows to benefit from exposure to the frosts of the 
winter. In the spring it may be gone over with the disk harrow and 
worked down, making use of such other tools as are best adapted to the 
type of soil involved. 

It is wise to prepare a few raised beds or ridges in the autumn for the 
earliest plantings. These will be ready to work much earlier in the spring, 
although they will dry out more rapidly in midsummer. Their direction 
should be such that they will gain full advantage of the warm southern sun. 
Garden Seed. — Few problems connected with the garden are more 
bewildering than the choice of varieties to be planted. Each seedsman 




B — Planting the Seedlings. Grow- 
ing Early Plants. 



THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 49 

lands his own productions and impartial descriptions are seldom to be 
found. A variety well adapted to one locality may be utterly unsuited to 
another. Experience alone will enable one to meet this problem in a 
satisfactory way. Selections ought to be made and orders placed early in 
the season, in order to avoid disappointment and to allow time for testing. 
Many well-known seed houses are striving to supply good, clean, viable 
seed that is true to type. Packet seeds found in grocery stores may be more 
or less unreliable. Many local seed houses carry excellent stock, however. 

To the gardener who is able to devote a bit of extra time to his plot, 
no hobby is more fascinating than the selection and saving of seeds from 
his own plants. There is always wide variation in excellence and these 
differences are inherited to a greater or less degree. By careful attention 
for a series of years, remarkable progress may be made in increasing the 
returns from a given area. Selections should be made on the basis of the 
individual plant rather than that of the individual fruit. The amateur 
plant-breeder should first clearly establish in his own mind a definite ideal. 
If he changes his ideal from year to year, no progress will be made. Con- 
siderable care should also be exercised in the harvesting, curing, labeling 
and storing of his seed crop. 

Seed that will not start growth will certainly not produce a crop and 
such should be eliminated before the garden is planted by means of careful 
germination tests. A definite number of seeds may be counted out and 
planted in a small box of soil which should be placed under good growing 
conditions as regards moisture and temperature. Other tests which are 
less thorough may be made by the use of blotters, cloth, porous dishes and 
the like. These, however, indicate only whether seed will sprout or not. 
They do not afford knowledge as to whether the seed is able to establish in 
the soil a plant that is of sufficient vigor to grow independently of the supply 
of food material which is stored within the seed coats. The final test con- 
sists in growing the crop to maturity. 

Growing Early Plants. — Every gardener is anxious to mature his crops 
at the earliest possible moment and to this end he is willing to employ 
special equipment and special methods. He selects the varieties which 
grow most rapidly and sows the seed long before outdoor planting is pos- 
sible. He aims to have plants of such vigor and hardiness that they will 
make steady gro"wi;h in spite of unfavorable conditions which they may 
encounter. These early plants enable him to more fully utilize the space of 
his garden, to care for both soil and plants more easily, to secure a better 
root system and in some cases larger yields. 

Early plants may be started in window boxes in the house and may 
later be set directly in their permanent place, or the seed may be sown 
indoors and the seedlings transplanted to the cold-frame for hardening 
before they go to the garden. Whether in greenhouse or hotbed and cold- 
frame, the temperature should be relatively low, ventilation free, watering 
not too heavy and sunshine unimpeded. These conditions make for stock- 



50 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

iness, hardiness, good root systems, vigor and freedom from disease. 
Conditions which are unfavorable in any of these respects encourage a soft 
and spindhng growth and result in plants which do not yield as satisfactory 
results as plants from seed sown in the open. 

Small greenhouses adjoining the farm home should be more common. 
The cost need not be heavy, as the construction may be exceedingly simple. 
The farmer may do the work himself at odd times. Old or second-hand pipe 
may be used for heating. The heating arrangement may be exceedingly 
simple, perhaps, using ho pipe at all and merely setting a small stove in the 
middle of the house. In case it is not feasible to have a greenhouse, a 
hotbed may be used to excellent advantage. Cold-frames and hotbeds are 
described in the next chapter. 

Seed Sowing. — Each vegetable has its own peculiarities as to time and 
manner of planting, and these peculiarities vary greatly with different 
climates and soils. Definite information upon these points, as well as 
upon many others, can be best secured from neighboring gardeners who have 
enjoyed long experience. The requirements for germination are moisture, 
warmth and air. Light is not necessary, although, of course, it is required 
immediately after seedlings break the ground. If the best results are 
to be obtained, the soil must be in excellent physical condition, especially 
for the smaller and more delicate seeds. These must also be sown a little 
more thickly than the more vigorous sorts, as is also the case when plant- 
ings are made very early in the spring when soil conditions are not strictly 
favorable and when damage by insects or diseases is feared. The skilful 
gardener should know his soil and his seed in order to sow just right both 
as regards thickness of sowing and depth of planting. Extreme thickness 
of sowing results in weak seedlings and requires much tedious work in 
thinning. Nevertheless, it is better for the novice to plant moderately 
heavily and to thus insure a good stand, even though some thinning is 
necessary after the plants have come up. 

Particular attention must be devoted to the covering of the seed after 
it has been sown. The miniature plant enclosed within the seed coat 
depends upon the capillary movement of water in the soil for the moisture 
necessary for its growth. This movement is favored by thoroughly com- 
pacting the soil, and there is little danger of getting it too firm except in the 
case of heavy soils and of those which are rather moist at the time. Sowing 
in drills is preferred to broadcasting because it is easier to sow the seed 
at uniform depth. The seedlings help each other in breaking ground, and 
thinning and other work are more easily performed. 

In the smaller gardens, seed is usually sown by hand. An envelope 
sealed at the side and cut squarely across the end is an excellent aid in this 
work. It is held the flat way and gently shaken with a movement length- 
wise of the row, so manipulating it that the seed will drop evenly from the 
edge. Many gardeners, however, prefer to use the unaided fingers, working 
the seed over the second joint of the index finger by means of the thumb. 



I 



THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 



51 



Mechanical drills are much more widely used in home gardens than 
ever before. Where fairly long rows are the rule, these implements are 
great time savers and in addition they may be depended upon to distrib- 
ute the seed uniformly both as to thickness and depth. The drill requires 
as much skill for its adjustment as does the finger or envelope method. The 
scale on the machine which shows the approximate rate of sowing for the 
different seeds can be used only as a general guide, as there is wide variation 
in the size of seed of each vegetable. 

Transplanting. — A seed consists of a miniature plant with its temporary 
food supply enclosed in such protecting covering as is necessary to insure 
safe removal to a situation far distant from the parent plant. This tiny 
plant is accordingly well adapted for a shift. However, the gardener in his 
eagerness for early fruition is not satisfied to let nature have her way. He 
must remove a plant which has discarded its protecting coat and which has 
already established its roots in the soil and begun to spread its branches in 
the air. This modification of 
nature's plan makes it necessary 
to exercise special precaution if 
he is to succeed. The soil should 
be in good physical condition 
and contain a reasonable amount 
of moisture. If possible, the 
work should be done on a cloudy 
day or in the evening so that the 
plant may recover from the shock 
before it is exposed to the un- 
broken rays of the sun. The 
little plants may be protected by 
special shading if it seems neces- 
sary. Care should be exercised 

to remove a good-sized ball of earth with the plant, thus establishing the 
foundling in its new place without serious disturbance of the roots. 
Plants should ordinarily be set just a little deeper than they stood in 
their previous place. 

It is not wise to set warm-blooded plants like tcmatoes and cucumbers 
exceedingly early, as they may be seriously stunted by cold weather, even 
though there be no frost. Nevertheless, some gardeners set out a few plants 
very early, expecting to replace them if necessary. 

Cultivation. — The word cultivation is a general term used in two or 
three different ways. As here applied, it refers to the maintenance of a thin 
layer of loose soil upon the surface of the garden throughout as much as 
possible of the growing season. This mulch is of great value in retaining 
moisture, in keeping the soil in good phj^sical condition and in checking the 
growth of weeds. In small gardens the hand hoe and hand weeder will 
serve every purpose without undue labor. Even more universally used than 




Sowing from Seed Package or Ex-\t:lope. 



52 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



the mechanical drill is the man-power wheel hoe, with its diversity of tools 
adapted for all sorts of soil stirring. Such implements are found useful, 
even though the rows be no more than forty feet long. In larger gardens, 
horse implements should be used as far as possible. In either case, it will be 
necessary to employ hand tools for maintaining the mulch between plants 
in the row. There is available a wider variety of tools and implements for 
cultivation than for any other type of garden work. These must be 
selected in accordance with the character of the soil, the crops, and the indi- 




Wheel Cultivator and Attachments.^ 



vidual fancy of the gardener himself. There are a number of crops which 
spread over the ground comparatively early in the season and prevent 
cultivation from that time on. An increasing number of gardeners are 
securing the same results by means of a mulch of fresh, strawy manure, 
distributed between the rows. This conserves moisture and prevents 
weed growth as effectively as cultivation. 

Irrigation. — In spite of all these precautions, gardens often suffer 
from lack o f water. It is not always possible to irrigate the rural garden, 

1 Courtesy of New York State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. From Cornell Reading Courses. 
Vol. II. 



THE FARM VEGETABLE GARDEN 53 

but in some cases the plot may be so located that the water of a little stream 
may be so diverted as to flow between the rows when needed. An increas- 
ing proportion of country homes have water supply systems of their own. 
When this is the case, a line can be run to the garden for hose or overhead 
irrigation. 

There is great danger that watering be done superficially, only the 
upper surface of the soil being moistened. This does more harm than good, 
as it dries out before it reaches the roots of the plants and at the same time 
it destroys the mulch which was fairly effective in conserving the moisture 
already present. 

Pest Control. — No garden is free from the ravages of insect enemies 
and plant diseases. Each malady and each insect must be treated in its 
own way. Information as to methods must be sought in spray calendars or 
in special treatises upon such subjects. However, certain general principles 
must be borne in mind. As in the case of human ailments, an ounce of 
prevention is worth a pound of cure. The most important preventive 
measure is thorough cleaning up every fall. This removes from the garden 
the dormant forms of both insects and fungi, and so reduces the danger 
of infestation the next year. Crop rotation, or rather the refusal to grow 
the same crop on the same ground two years in succession, means much in 
the prevention of certain diseases. Plants which are making strong and 
vigorous growth are considerably less susceptible to attack than weaklings. 

Cabbage, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, kale and kohl-rabi are all sub- 
ject to clubroot. This disease is caused by a slime mould which lurks in the 
soil and which attacks the plant through the roots. When the roots are 
thus affected, they are unal)le to secure either plant food or moisture, and 
the plants soon die. The plants wilt slightly at first and more seriously as 
the disease progresses. The roots become swollen, knotted and misshapen. 
There is no clear-cut method of control, but rotation, liming, thorough 
cleaning up each year and care to avoid the introduction of the disease by 
means of manure, tools and purchased plants is advised. 

With beans, special precaution must be exercised against the rust or 
anthracnose. It is well to save one's own seed, choosing only pods which are 
naturally free from spot. Cultivation should be avoided when the plants 
are wet. 

For insect enemies, plant diseases and their remedies, see chapters on 
same in Part II of this book. 

Quality of Vegetables. — Quality in many vegetables depends to a 
large extent upon the stage of maturity. Peas and beans are more pala- 
table, tender and digestible if gathered at a rather early stage of maturity 
than if allowed to get too large. As a rule, the protein content will be 
higher and the loss in actual nutritious value is more than counterbalanced 
by the good qualities above mentioned. 

Few people realize how rapidly sweet corn deteriorates in value after 
it has been removed from the plant. It should go directly from garden to 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



kettle. Garden beets, in like manner, lose considerable of their sweetness 
if allowed to stand long between time of pulling and cooking. Many of 
the garden vegetables suffer loss in a similar way. 

Storage of Vegetables. — The character of storage that will give best 
results depends on the nature of the vegetable. Most vegetables, such as 
cabbage, root crops, potatoes and apples, keep best when stored under fairly 
dry conditions with some ventilation and a low temperature. The tempera- 
tm"e cannot be too low so long as freezing is avoided. Low temperatures 
prevent the development of most fungous and bacterial activities which 
are directly responsible for various forms of decay. 

There are a few of the vegetables, such as sweet potatoes and squash, 
that keep better at a temperature of about 50° F. 

Literature. — The skilful gardener is always on the lookout for new 
ideas and new suggestions that will enable him to improve his garden from 
year to year. Many books have been published and a number of the 
experiment stations have issued bulletins dealing with the home lot. The 
following are a few references: 

"Home Vegetable Gardening," bv F. F. Rockwell. 

"The Home Garden," by Eben E. Rexford. 

"The Vegetable Garden," by Ida D. Bennett. 

"Vegetable Gardening," by R. L. Watts. 

" How to Make a Vegetable Garden," by Edith Loring Fullerton. 

" Book of Vegetables," by Allen French. 

" Manual of Gardening," by L. H. Bailey. 

" Vegetables for Home and Exhibition." Beckett. 

" Garden Making." Bailey. 

" Principles of Vegetable Gardening." Bailey. 

" Farm and Garden Rule Book." 

" The Home Vegetable Garden." Farmers' Bulletin No. 255. 

" The Home Garden in the South." Farmers' Bulletin 647., 

" Hotbeds and Cold-frames." Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 30. 

" Home-Garden Planning." Cornell Readmg-Course Bulletin No. 34. 

" Planting the Home Vegetable Garden." Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 58. 

"Summer Work in the Home Garden." Cornell Reading-Course Bulletin No. 92, and 

others. 
" The Home Vegetable Garden." Illinois Circular No. 154. 
" Farmer's Home Garden." West Virginia Bulletin No. 122. 
"The Farmer's Vegetable Garden." Illinois Bulletin No. 105. 



CHAPTER 4 

Vegetable Forcing 

By C. W. Waid 

Extension Specialist, Michigan Agricultural College 

Vegetable forcing is a term applied to the growing of vegetables in 
such a way that they mature or become suitable for use in a shorter time 
or at a different season than when grown under normal conditions. Cold- 
frames, hotbeds and greenhouses are used for this purpose. 

Cold-Frames. — Cold-frames are wooden or concrete structures covered 
with glass or cloth. They are entirely dependent upon the sun's rays as 
the source of heat and serve as a protection against cold winds and too 
rapid radiation of the heat at night. The frames are usually built to run 
east and west with the south side about a foot above the surface of the 
ground and the north side a foot or so higher than the south side. They 
are about six feet in width and of any desired length. When glass is used 
as a cover the panes are fastened in sash. The standard size of the sash is 
three by six feet. 

It is not possible to maintain a uniform temperature in cold-frames 
auring very cold weather. Their use is, therefore, confined to relatively 
mild climates or to short periods in the colder climates. They are best 
adapted to the growing of cool-season crops, the starting of plants for late 
transplanting or the hardening off of plants started earlier in the greenhouse 
or hotbed. A cloth cover is sometimes used in the place of glass as a matter 
of economy. 

Hotbeds. — Hotbeds are similar in construction to cold-frames. The 
chief difference is that in addition to the heat secured from the sun's rays 
other means are used to supply heat in the hotbeds. The common source 
of artificial heat is fermented horse manure. Hot-air flues and steam or 
hot-water pipes are also used for this purpose. When steam or hot water 
is used to heat a greenhouse or residence the same system can be used to 
advantage in heating the hotbeds. Hotbeds are more satisfactory than 
cold-frames for the growing of early crops or the starting of early plants in 
a cold climate, as the temperature can be made more uniform. 

To prepare a manure hotbed, the dirt is removed from inside the frame 
to a depth of from one and one-half to two and one-half feet. Horse manure 
from grain-fed animals should be placed in a compact pile at least three 
weeks before it is to be put in the pit. As soon as the manure begins to 
ferment it should be forked over and thoroughly mixed. All lumps should 
be broken. A second forking over may be needed before it is ready for the 



56 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



pit, when it should be a steaming mass. Care must be taken not to let it 
overheat and burn, as this would reduce its value. When the pit is dug 
and the manure ready it should be placed in the pit a few inches at a time 
and evenly tamped. From one to two feet of solid manure is essential for 
best results; the greater amount being needed for the growing of heat- 
loving plants and for other plants as well in the colder sections of the 
country. Rich garden soil, preferably from a compost heap, should be 
placed over the manure to a depth of about six inches. The sash should 
be placed on the frame as soon as the manure and soil are put in to prevent 
the heat escaping too freely and to keep off the rain or snow. If the manure 
is well prepared it will raise the temperature of the soil so high at first that 
it will not be safe to sow seeds until several days later. The temperature 
of the soil should not be over 85° F. when the seeds are sown. 



^ :: ^M«f«..S:^m» 




A Double Sash Steam-Heated Hotbed. 



The Greenhouse. — Greenhouses are glass-covered structures, so built 
that the person who grows crops in them can work inside with ease. They 
are heated with hot-air flues, hot water or steam. When properly con- 
structed it is possible to grow many kinds of crops to maturity in them at 
any season of the year. They are even more satisfactory than hotbeds for 
the starting of plants for early crops outside. It is possible for the gardener 
not only to give the plants better care in bad weather in the greenhouse, 
but he is not so much exposed, and thus can work more comfortably and to 
better advantage. The combination of a greenhouse, hotbeds and cold- 
frames is desirable when possible. 

Growing Plants Under Glass. — The growing of plants under glass is 
very different from growing them in the open. To the inexperienced, it 
might seem easier to grow them inside than outside, because conditions are 
more nearly under the grower's control. This is not true, however, as the 



VEGETABLE FORCING 



57 



comparatively high temperature, excessive humidity and artificial condi- 
tions in general encourage the development of tender plants which are sub- 
ject to attack by various insects and diseases. Vegetable forcing is perhaps 
the most exacting of all lines of intensive gardening. To be successful in 
this line of work when it is followed as a business, an individual must be able 
to apply himself and must have a knowledge of the needs of the crops to be 
grown. If he is in love with this particular line of work, his chances of 
success are much greater than when he forces himself into it because he 
thinks there is money in the business. This need not discourage the man 
who wishes to have a small greenhouse and a few sash to assist him in 
getting more money from his outside crops. Many successful greenhouse 
men have started in this very way. 




A Greenhouse Suitable for Forcing Plants. 



One of the most important things to keep in mind when starting in the 
forcing business even in a small way, is to try to supply as nearly as possible 
the needs of the crop to be grown as to temperature, ventilation, plant-food 
and water. If these demands are met there will be much less trouble from 
diseases than when they are not properly looked after. 

The following is a list of cool plants which require a night temperature 
of from 45° to 55° F., and a day temperature of from 65° to 70° F. on clear 
days : 



Lettuce 


Peas 


Onions 


Radishes 


Beets 


Celery 


Rhubarb 


Asparagus 


Parsley 


Cauliflower 


Carrots 





The warm plants demanding a night temperature of 55° F. or above 
and a day temperature of 75° F. or more on bright days are tomatoes, egg- 
plants, peppers, cucumbers, muskmelons and beans. 

Too much importance cannot be placed on " ventilation. In cold- 



58 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

frames and hotbeds poor ventilation is almost certain to induce the disease 
known as " damping off," while careful ventilation and watering will prevent 
it to a great extent. In a greenhouse such diseases as mildew and others 
which flourish in a moisture-laden atmosphere and high temperature will be 
much more liable to give trouble when the ventilation is insufficient than 
when it is given proper attention. 

Watering is another important operation. As a rule, it is best to 
water only on bright days, and preferably during the forenoon to give time 
for the plants to dry off before night. The overhead system of watering is 
being used very commonly by progressive gardeners in the greenhouse and 
in hotbeds and cold-frames. 

The most common source of plant-food in vegetable forcing is well- 
rotted stable manure. When this can be secured in sufficient quantity, 
little in the way of artificial fertilizers will be needed. In some cases the 
use of liquid manure or nitrate of soda in small quantities will produce good 
results. Wood-ashes, especially from the burning of hardwood and ashes 
secured from the burning of tobacco stems, can be used to good advantage. 

It is not customary to make frequent changes of- soil in the vegetable 
forcing business. Some soils have been in use for forty years and are still 
producing good crops. In some cases steam sterilization has been necessary 
to overcome certain soil diseases. 

A brief treatment of this subject would not be complete without calling 
attention to the importance not only of good varieties but of good strains 
of vegetables for forcing. There is no line of gardening in which this matter 
is of greater importance. Much time and expense is incurred in the growing 
of plants under glass. It would certainly not be profitable to put so much 
expense upon varieties which even when well grown are inferior. Well- 
grown vegetables of good varieties and strains will demand the highest 
market prices. The forcing of vegetables is a profitable and pleasant line 
of work when properly done by the man who knows his business and 
delights in his work. 

REFERENCES 

"The Forcing Book." Bailey. 

Illinois Expt. Station Bulletin 184. "Tests with Sodium Nitrate for Early Vegetables." 

Farmers' Bulletin 460, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "Frames as a Factor in Truck 

Growing." 
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 224. "Greenhouse Construction." 



CHAPTER 5 
Mushroom Culture 

By H. M. Ware 

Practical Mushroom Grower, Delaware 

Over 5,000,000 pounds of the common mushroom (Agaricus campestris) 
are grown annually in the United States. Besides these, in 1914 we 
imported from Europe 9,188,177 pounds in cans, 30 per cent more than in 
1910. Practically all of the $3,000,000 worth of mushrooms grown or 
imported by this country in 1914 were sold in a few of our larger cities. 
Hundreds of smaller cities and towns throughout the country offer unde- 
veloped markets for this product, a fact which does not indicate that the 
supply will soon exceed the demand. 

The uncertainty of mushroom growing as a business was eliminated 
when Dr. B. M. Duggar discovered the "Tissue Method " of manufacturing 
spawn in 1902. As a direct result of discarding the "Chance" spawn 
imported from England and France, the American industry has developed 
rapidly. 

While it is true that the bigger the operation the lower will be the cost 
of production, nevertheless mushroom culture is adapted as a side line to 
many farms. When sold, mushrooms enter the same channels, wholesale 
or retail, as do other fancy products. Labor can be profitably employed 
in winter. The manure used in the houses is in ideal condition for applica- 
tion on the land. This point is better understood when it is considered 
that the compostmg of the manure is almost identical with the methods 
employed by market gardeners — that the fresh mushroom contains 90 
per cent water and analysis has shown that, ton for ton, mushroom manure 
is more valuable than fresh stable manure, having lost little beside weight, 
water and weed-seeds. 

It should be understood that much hard and some unpleasant work is 
unavoidable in mushroom culture. But that, with intelligent care in supply- 
ing the few essential details, success and a legitimate profit are assured. 

The most common causes of failure are: 

1. Poor spawn. 

2. Heavy watering. 

3. Unfavorable temperature, 

4. Poor or improperly composted manure. 

Houses. — The place in which mushrooms are to be grown must permit 
easy control of temperature, moisture and ventilation. While proper 
conditions may be afforded by caves, cellars or unused buildings, it will 
27 59 



AV . *' '. ■ -..5 

J"« * ■ . ' ' > ;» :.' 





^ 




o 



p 
o 



Ph 



o 
pq 



1 Courtesy of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bulletin S5, B. P. I. 

(60) 



MUSHROOM CULTURE 



61 



generally be found advisable to build especially for the purpose. But no 
one should build a mushroom house without first inspecting the plant of a 
successful grovv^er. Permanent walls can be made of hollow tile or other 
material that will not readily decay. Air space in the wall must be provided 
to maintain even temperature. 

When grown in ^dnter mushrooms require artificial heat. Hot-water 
heating, the system most economically and easily run, is in general use 
by all large growers. Five hundred square feet of pipe surface (1000 feet 
of l|-inch pipe) should be allowed 
to every 20,000 cubic feet of air 
space. 

Preparation of the Compost. — 
The best material is fresh horse 
manure, which contains plenty of 
the more resistant cereal straws. 
Care should be exercised to see that 
no disinfectant has been used. Build 
the pile with straight sides 3 or 4 
feet deep throughout and 8 feet 
wide. This makes turning easy, 
and leaching of plant-food is pre- 
vented. In five days the pile should 
be turned; thereafter at weekly 
intervals, until rapid fermentation 
has stopped; usually in three or 
four weeks. Water the compost 
when turning and keep it moist. 
Heavy watering at first will do little 
harm, but when ready for the beds 
compost should be in such condition 
that when squeezed in the hand 
water will not readily drop from it. 
Some growers cover the piles with 

three inches of dirt before and after the first turning. Equally successful 
growers, however, use no dirt in the compost. Dirt seems only to shorten 
the time necessary for composting. When ready for the beds the manure 
has lost all objectionable odors, and the straw has changed from yellow 
to dark brown. 

Filling the Beds. — The beds in common use are flat, 8 inches deep and 
6 feet wide, built in tiers of shelves five or six beds to the tier. The boards 
used are generally chestnut, 1 inch by 8 inches by 12 feet. These are lapped 
loosely so they may be easily dumped. 

The bottom beds should be filled first, so that the operator will have 
head room. They should then be firmed {i. e., leveled by light pounding 
with back of fork); if not wet, the manure may be tramped. Firming 




Turning the Compost. 



02 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



lessens cvajjonition and prevents burning during the secondary heating. 
When filled the house is closed, and in a day or two the tenijMTature rises, 
sometimes to 120° F., thi-n slowly drojjs to nonual. One ton of manure will 
fill approximately ()5 square feet of bed 8 inches (h'ep. 

Spawning.- Only the best American brick spawn should Ix? usi-d. 




A Typical Kanoe uf Mvsuroom HorsES. 

(^f the several varieties, the White and Cream are most desirable; white is 
more salable, cream more prolific and iiardy. Spawning should begin wIk n 
the temjx'rature of the beds has (lroi)i)ed ;o 70° F. The bricks should U' 
broken into eight or ten pieces 1^ to 2 inches square and placed evenly on 




SuTiNfi THK Casinc; Dikt. 



the lx?ds. The pieces should then be inserted vertically one inch below the 
surface of th<' manure, .\fter spawning, the beds should be firmed again. 
Spawn .should be kept in a cool, dry i)lace. One brick costs from 
twelve to fifteen cents anil will i)lant 8 square feet of bed. 



MUSHROOM CULTURE 



63 



Casing the Beds. — Two weeks after spawning, a piece of spawn should 
be dug up; if the mycehum appears as a mould running into the manure, 
the beds are ready to case. Casing consists in covering the beds with a 
layer of sifted loam 1 to 1| inches deep. The loam causes the mushrooms 
to head, acts as a mulch and is the best medium for picking. The average 
farm wagon load of sifted loam will cover 250 square feet of bed. 

Temperature. — Temperature is important because it regulates the 
competition of mushrooms with insects and with other fungi. It has been 
found that at 53° to 58° F. mushrooms grow slowly but strongly, while 
other growths are held in check. Even at freezing temperatures mush- 
rooms lie dormant without apparent harm. Too much heat causes rapid 




Types of Fancy Packages, 



development, not only of mushrooms, but also of any other organisms 
present, so that the spawn soon "runs out." The temperature should be 
kept near 56° F. and sudden changes should be avoided. 

Water. — Water should be applied to the beds only as a spray. The 
surface should never be allowed to dry out, nor should it be soaked. It is 
better to apply a little water every day than to water heavily at longer 
intervals. The air should be kept as moist as proper ventilation 
permits. 

Ventilation. — Ventilation is of great importance, but must be accom- 
plished without draughts. Draughts quickly dry out the beds and cause 
the mushrooms to crack and darken, especially after watering. Overhead 
ventilators give the most uniform ventilation with the least danger. 

Picking and Marketing. — The first mushrooms appear six to eight 
weeks after spawning. When in full bearing they should be picked every 
day. Picking is an art. The yield and returns may be materially reduced 
by lack of j udgment in this single operation. Experience only can teach one 
to pick properly. It should be remembered that mushrooms gain no weight 



(U 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



iihrr the veil hopiins to break and tliat an open mushroom is a third-t'lass 
article on the market. 

Mushrooms are a (Ustinetly hi^h-fiirade prochict. 'J'hey desen'e the 
most careful gracHn^ anil care in the selection of a package. The standard 
grades in the New York market are Fancy, Choice, Buttons and Seconds, 
Too few growers use a lalxl, their packages being knowii only by a number 
given in a commission house. The ventilated pound box will n-eonniimd 
itself for the retail trade. The four-pound s])lint l)asket is the standard 
wholesale package; these arc tied in buntlles of six for shipment by express. 

After i)icking, delay and high temperatures are to Ix' avoided. Even 
in cold weather some ventilation in the package is d?sirable. 



The lM)LL()\vi.\(i AUK thk Most Thochlesomk Enemies. 
DISEASE.S. 



Enkmt. 


Whbn TRouBLEsomi. 1 Ijuwrt. 1 TnuTmirr. 


FoKgiiigoff. 


Wann weather. 


Young mushrooms turn brown. 


Lower tampcnturc. Ventila- 
tion. 


Black spot. 


Improper watering and [ Diacolorcd caps, 
ventilation. { 


Proper conditions. 




Infected spawn or com- ! Alimirniai tirowthH, niii«iha|)cn, 
IMwt. 1 uosalttblc, hiiibly iufectiuiu. 


Careful Ranilation. Formaid^ 
liydc gaf fumigutiun. 



INSECTS. 



Mites. 


High temperature. | Troublesome; may affect spawn. { 


Springtaib. 


Carelessness in cleaning' Similar to fogging off. | Fumigation with carbon bisul- 
house. I phide. 


Larva of 8ios. 


PiKir manure. Warm i Bore into mushrooms; umul- Carlwn bisulphide. Low tcm- 
weathcr. able. pcraturc. 



Mushroom Enemies. — By providing sMit;il»lc growing conditions and 
exercising ihc utmost can- in cleaning the hou.se after a croj) has been grown, 
little troul)le from insects or fungous enemies will be experienced. Jlvery 
speck of old compo.st must be brushed out. The Ix'd boards and every 
part of the house should then be whit<>washed and if possible fumigated. 

Yield and Returns. — The profitable life of a mushroom l)ed averages 
tlu-ee to four months. A yield of one half jxtuml ]>er .square foot will pay 
lal>or and expenses, but one pound per square foot should be produced 
under proper conditions. 

The average wholesale price is 25 to 2G cents per pound. Mushrooms 
retail throughout the .season from 35 to 75 cents iK>r pound, deix'nding alike 
on season and (piality. 

The co.st of production deix^nds mainly u|>on the yield and the cost of 
labor and materials in a given section. The large growers estimate the 
cost at 15 to 25 cuuts ix;r pound. 



MUSHROOM CULTURE C5 

REFERENCES 

"Mushrooms: How to Grow Them." Falconer. 

Ohio Expt. Station Circular 153. "Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 127. "Micogene Disease of Mushrooms." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 85. "Principles of 

Mushroom Growing." 
Farmers' Bulletin 342, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. " Mushroom Growing and Preserving 

Wild Ones." 



CHAPTER 6 

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants 

Hv \\ . W . .Stockukk(^eu 
Physiologist in Drug and Poisonous Plant Investigaiions, U. S. Dept. 

of Agriculture 

The lu.irkit (Icinand for the products of medicinal and aromatic plants 
wlion compared with the dcnuind for staj^lc j)rodiicts such as cereals, fruits 
or venetahies, is relatively very small, and is not sufficient to make them 
promisiuK crops for general cultivation. Many such plants which can be 
grown and |)repared for market with little difficulty, bring but a small 
return, and hence their cultivation olYers little jjrosjxct oi i)r()fit. A number 
of high-priced metlicinal plants nmst be given care for two or more years 
Ix'fore a crop can be harvested, and, since expensive equii)ment is usually 
required for their successful culture and ])reparation for market, the 
production of such crojis offers littl*' encouragement to inexperiences! 
growers who are looking for (juick returns and large i)rofits from a small 
investment of time and money. 

Requirements for Medicinal Plants. — Several medicinal and aromatic 
plants, for which the demand is fairly constant, have been jirofitably grown 
on a commercial basis, but the success of the growers has been due largely 
to the care which they have taken to jiroduce a uniform jjroduct of high 
quality. However, the production of drugs of high quality requires skilled 
management, experience in spt'cial methods of plant culture, actpiaintance 
with trailc recpiirements and a knowledge of the iiiHuence of time of col- 
lection and manner of pre|)aration on those constituents of the drug which 
d(;tcrmine its value. Small quantities of drugs i)roduced without regard to 
these conditions are apt to be poor in quality and so unattractive to dealers 
and m.anuf.icturers that the ])roduct will not be salable at a jirice sufficient 
to make their production i)rolitable. 

The agricultural conditions generally i)revailing in the I'nited States 
and in ('anada are far more favorable to the growing of medicinal and 
aromatic plants a.s a special industry for well-equip|)ed cultivators than as a 
side croj) for general farmers. 

The growing of medicinal plants in the I'nited States has hardly 
IKUssed beyond the exi)erimental stage, and although si'veral of these plant,s 
j)romi.se satisfactory profits in suitable localities, any general attempt to 
grow them on a commercial .scale would soon result in over-stocking the 
market. However, the demand for such jilants as ani.s<', belladonna, car- 

0«) 



MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 67 

away, coriander, digitalis and sage is at present large enough to make them 
worthy of consideration. 

Anise (Pimpinella anisum) is an annual plant grown for its aromatic 
seeds. It is cultivated on a small scale in Rhode Island, and is suited for 
localities similar in climate to that state. The best soil for anise is a light, 
moderately-rich and well-drained loam. The plant is very sensitive to 
unfavorable weather conditions, but in a good season the yield of seed 
should be from 400 to 600 pounds per acre. About 2000 acres should 
produce the average quantity of seed annually imported into this country. 
The price usually ranges from 6 to 8 cents a pound. 

Belladonna {Atropa belladonna) is an important drug plant for which 
there is a steady demand. It has been cultivated in New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania and California, although not very successfully from a commercial 
point of view. It is apparently better adapted to the warmer states than 
to the colder regions where it is likely to winter-kill. Belladonna thrives 
best in deep, moist, well-drained loam containing lime. Sowing seed in the 
field usually gives very poor results, but sowing seed in the greenhouse and 
transplanting like tomatoes is usually successful. The cost of growing 
belladonna is high, owing to the large amount of necessary hand labor. 
Five hundred pounds of dry leaves per acre is considered a fair yield. At 
the end of the second year about 1000 pounds of dried root per acre may be 
harvested. The prices in the wholesale drug markets have been from 14 
to 25 cents a pound for the leaves and from 9 to 18 cents a pound fcr the 
roots. Prices to growers have been proportionately less. 

Caraway (Carum carui) is an annual, cultivated for its aromatic 
seeds, which are used medicinally and for flavoring. It grows and fruits 
well over a considerable portion of the United States, especially in the north 
and northwest, but its cultivation in this country has never a^-sumcd 
commercial proportions. Soil of a somewhat clayey nature and containing 
a fair proportion of humus and available plant-food is particularly suited 
to caraway, but the plant generally grows well in any good upland soil 
which will produce fair crops of corn or potatoes. The average yield of 
seed per acre is about 1000 pounds. At this rate about 2700 acres would be 
required to produce the quantity of seed annually imported. Anyone 
undertaking the cultivation of this plant might well consider growing dill 
and fennel also. Caraway seed is valued at about 6| cents a pound. 

Coriander {Coriandrum sativum) is also grown for its aromatic seeds 
and in its requirements and method of culture is very similar to caraway. 
The yield of seed is quite variable, but from 500 to 800 pounds per acre may 
be expected. If the average yield were 650 pounds per acre, 2000 acres 
would be required to produce the quantity of seed annually imported. 
The seed is valued at approximately 3 cents a pound. 

Digitalis or Foxglove {Digitalis purpurea) is an important drug plant 
for which there is a constant demand. The leaves are used in medicine. 
Although widely grown in flower gardens as an ornamental, it has not yet 



(;.<^ SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Lr'cii grown on a large scale in this countr>' as a drug crop. Tiiis plant 
thrives best in ordinary well-ilrained garden soils of open texture. Sowing 
the seed in the field is usually unsuccessful. For g<)<td results they should 
he sown in see(l-j)ans or flats in the greenhouse. When danger of frost is 
past the |)lants should 1)<> liardened oil and transplanted to the field. 
Digitalis does not flower until the second year, when the leaves may be 
collected. Probably GOO j)ounds of dry leaves per acre may \)C obtained 
under favorable conditions. The wholesale price of leaves ranges from 8 to 
40 cents a i)<)und, averaging about IT) cents. 

The Common Sage Plant {Salvia offirinalifi) is easily cultivated and 
will grow in almost any wrll-drained fertile soil. There is a good demand 
for American leaf sage, which sells at a considerably higlier price than the 
inii)()rt('(l article. 

The dry herb or leaves of a number of aromatic plants form marketable 
products for which there is a small demand, but as a rule these i)lants are 
grown for the essential oils which they yield. The jmncipal essential oils 
produced in the United States from cultivated jilants are: p<piM'rmint, 
siM-arinint, tansy, wormwood and American worinseed. Th<> ])ri('e of im- 
ported sage is 3 to 5 cents a pound. American sage is usually a little higher. 

Ginseng {Panax quinquefolium) is a fleshy-rooted herbaceous plant 
native to this country and formerly of frecjuent occurrence in shady, well- 
drained situations in hardwood forests from Maine to Minnesota and south- 
ward to the mountains of CJeorgia antl the C'arolinas. It has long been 
valued by the Chinese for medicinal u.se, though rarely creditetl with cura- 
tive properties by natives of other countries. Under cultural conditions, 
ginseng sluaild be shielded from direct sunlight by the shade of the trees 
or by lath sheds. The soil should be fairly light and well fertilized with 
woods earth, rotted leaves or fine raw bone meal, the latter aiijiliiHl at the 
rate of one pound to each square yard. Seed should be planted in the 
spring as early as the soil can be worked to advantage, placed G inches apart 
each way in th<' jxTinanent beds, or 2 by G inches in seed-beds, and the 
s<'edlings transplanted to stand G to 8 inches ai)art when two years old. 
Only cracked or i)artially germinated seed should be u.s(hI. 

Ginseng needs little cultivation, but the l)e(ls should he at all times 
kei)t free from weeds and gra.ss and the surface of the soil slightly stirred 
win-never it shows signs of (•.•iking. A wintrr n)ulch over the crowns is 
usually essential, but it should not be ai)i)liid until freezing weather is 
innninent and should Ije removed in the spring before the first shoots come 
through the soil. 

'i'he roots do not reach marketable size until about the fifth or sixth 
year from seed. When dug, they should be carefully washed or shaken 
free of all adhering soil, but not scraped. Curing is U'st elTected in a well- 
ventilated room heated to about 80" F. Nearly a month is requin^d to 
properly cure the larger roots, and great care nnist be taken in order to 
prevent moulding or souring. Overheating must also be avoided. When 



MEDICINAL AND AROMATIC PLANTS 69 

well cured the roots should be stored in a dry, airy place until ready for 
sale. A market may be found with the wholesale drug dealers, some of 
whom make a specialty of buying ginseng root for export. 

The price of cultivated ginseng root, as quoted in wholesale drug lists, 
has ranged during the past few years from $5 to $7.50 per pound. 

A detailed account of ginseng culture is given in Farmers' Bulletin 
551, entitled ''The Cultivation of American Ginseng." 

Peppermint (Mentha piperita) is frequently found growing wild 
throughout the eastern half of the United States, and can be grown under 
cultivation on any land that will produce good crops of corn. It is grown 
commercially with most success on the muck lands of reclaimed swamps in 
southern Michigan and northern Indiana. On good land the average 
yield of oil per acre is about 30 pounds, but as the yield is variable, approxi- 
mately 15,000 acres of land are required to produce the annual market 
demand. It is valued at about $2.50 per pound. 

Spearmint (Mentha spicata) is very much like peppermint in its 
requirements, but can be grown successfully on a wider range of soils. On 
ordinary soils the yield of oil varies from 10 to 20 pounds per acre, but on 
muck lands the yield is usually only a little less than that of peppermint. 
The annual market requirement for spearmint oil is about 50,000 pounds. 
The oil has an average value of about $3.30 a pound and the dry herb 3 to 
4 cents a pound. 

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) is a hardy plant which grows well on 
almost any good soil, but rich and rather heavy soils well supplied with 
moisture favor a heavy growth. The yield of oil varies, but about 20 pounds 
per acre is a fair average. The annual market requirement of this oil 
probably does not much exceed 3000 pounds. It is valued at about $2.60 
a pound. 

Wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) is a hardy plant which can be 
grown almost everywere, but commercially it is usually grown on fairly 
rich, moderately moist loams. It is cultivated on a small commercial 
scale chiefly in Michigan and Wisconsin, The annual production of oil is 
about 2000 pounds, which is apparently sufficient to satisfy market require- 
ments. It is valued at about $2.40 per pound. 

American Wormseed (Chenopodium anthelminticum) is a coarse weed 
which grows well in almost any soil. The yield of this oil varies, but 
about 30 pounds per acre is a fair average and the annual production is 
about 5000 pounds. It is gaining in importance largely through its use as 
a remedy for hook-worm. The price ranges from $1.40 to $5.50 a pound. 

Additional Equipment. — In addition to the usual agricultural equip- 
ment the producer of essential oils must provide a suitable distilling 
apparatus, since such oils are usually derived from plants by steam distilla- 
tion. The cost of setting up a still will depend upon what facilities are 
already at hand and the size and efficiency of the apparatus installed. It 
may easily range from a small sum to several thousand dollars. 



70 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Whore succossful production of modicinHl i)l:ints has not been dcnion- 
stnitcd it should i)o dctcriuinod on small cxpcrinu'ntal plats before under- 
taking commercial i)lantinKs. 

REFERENCES 

Michigan Expt. Station Hullotin (S|H-cial) 72. "Some GinftsenR Troubles." 

U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin 2G. "American Medicinal Flowers, Fruits and 

Seeds." 
Farmers' Hulletin.s, V. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

531. "Lark.spur or Poison Weed." 

!i'A. "Cultivation of American flin.'^ong." 

(U.S. "(loldcn.scal I'ndtT Cultivation." 

094. "The ('ultivation of I'ci)perniint and Spearmint." 

663. "Drug Plants Under Cultivation." 



CHAPTER 7 

Principles of Fruit Production, with Special Reference to 
THE Home Plantation 

By M. G. Kains 
Professor of Horticulture, The Pennsylvania State College 

The establishment of home orchards is as important as ever, especially 
in sections where fruit is not now grown but is shipped in. With the 
wealth of information available through government and experiment station 
publications, no one who owns land suitable for growing general farm crops 
need hesitate to plant fruit for home needs. Even for the cold sections 
hardy varieties are available. 

The Main Factors to Consider. — Temperature decides as to the 
species, and sometimes the variety, that may be grown. That of a region 
and even of an orchard is determined mainly by latitude, altitude, physical 
character of the country and distance from large bodies cf water. In the 
spring, lakes and rivers keep the air cool because they are cold. Thus, they 
hold back bud development and aid the plants in escaping late frosts. In 
the fall they continue warm and thus lengthen the season. Other sections 
even nearby, but beyond the reach of breezes from the water, are more 
likely to be frosted. 

Moisture in the soil may be secured through rainfall or by irrigation. 
In the East enough rain generally falls to care for the fruit interests, 
provided proper tillage methods are practiced; in the West, irrigation has 
largely solved the water supply problem. Of more importance is the rela- 
tive humidity of the air; for where the air is dry, crop growdng is more diffi- 
cult than where it is fairly moist. In the northern prairie states, where 
the winter air is both cold and dry, many fruits fail because the air sucks 
moisture out of twigs and branches while the ground is frozen. In the East, 
where the cold spells alternate with moist weather, the twigs have a chance 
to secure moisture either from the soil or from the air. 

Soil. — In general, currants and European pears usually do best on 
heavy soils; peaches and strawberries on Ughter ones. But there are 
countless successes on soils of other character. Because of this, it is evident 
that the distinctions drawn between soils adapted to certain varieties are 
perhaps too fine; and yet there are varietal preferences that should be 
considered for commercial orchards. For home and local market planta- 
tion these distinctions are of less importance than for big business orchards. 

Subsoil is of even more importance than surface soil in fruit culture, 
especially of tree fruits. Many good business orchards are on thin soils 

71 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



that must be foti to keep the trees vigorous and productive. The secret is 
a deep, porous subsoil which insures pood drainage and deep feeding; 
lienee the abihty of the tre<'s to withstand seasonal vagaries. Since no 
business orchard should be planted without determining the nature of the 

subsoil, the prospective 
phmter of a home orcliard 
may well follow this prac- 
tice. 

The Parasite factor is 
mainly controllable. Not 
that there are no difficult 
enemies to handle, but 
l)reventive or remedial 
measures are available and 
mostly effective where 
j)roj)erly applied. 

Site for tlw home farm 
orcliard is as important in 
its degree as location is to 
the commercial fruit 
grower. Site jx-rtains to 
the i^ositionof the orchard 
on the farm, as a gentle 
eastward or northern slope. 
Much of the success of the 
])lantation may be in 
choosing a welUlrained, 
elevated site i)rotected 
from stro;ig winds. Such 
a site allows the cold air as 
well as the ground water 
to drain away, thus jm'- 
venting frost injury to 
buds and blossoms. It 
;dso favors holding fruit 
by tlie trees, wlureas a site 
exposiHJ t o h i g h w i n d s 
would favor drojijiing. 

Aspect formerly at- 
tracted far more attenti(»n than today. It was believed that southern 
and eastern sloi)es favor earlin«'ss — and they do — but tin* effect is less 
than conunonly believed. Business fruit growers plant on all sloix»s and 
get good re>ults from all. 

Windbreaks may or may not be a benefit. No one should plant a 

> Courtesy of Moloney Brothers und Wclla Company, DaoaviUc, X. Y. 




CJoui) Nl ItsKKY Stijck.I 

fXoti" tlic extent i)f roots :ii»(l form of topsi 



PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 73 

windbreak without first studying the problem from all angles. Often the 
best windbreak is the outside row of fruit trees, especially if of a variety 
that grows large and holds its fruit tenaciously. 

Nursery Stock is nowadays so low priced that no one should consider 
growing his own trees. Fruit trees need special care as to propagation, and 
also require too much time to grow to orchard planting size; so when the 
best standard varieties can be bought for thirty cents or less, why run the 
risk of failure in growing one's own? In buying stock, it is wise to insist 
upon getting straight, clean trees without Y-crotches, free from insects 
and diseases, and in plump, robust condition when received. Under no 
condition should fruit trees older than two years be considered. Peach 
trees should never be over one year. Trees older than these do not produce 
fruit sooner or make better orchard trees than young ones. Most commer- 
cial fruit growers prefer one-year trees of all kinds because these can be 
trained more easily than can older trees. The trees also make better 
progress because they have not lost so many roots. 

Southern vs. Northern Grown Nursery Trees. — In the South "June 
budded" trees are popular. There they may be planted in the fall; but 
for northern fall planting they do not mature early enough to get a start 
before winter sets in. Therefore, in the North they should be bought only 
for spring setting. They are not inferior to northern trees when j^lanted 
in spring. 

Time to Plant. — Fall planting has decided advantages over spring 
planting. There is a far better chance to get the varieties ordered because 
nurserymen are not then sold out; if four or more weeks will elapse before 
winter sets in, the trees may be planted and thus the work done when time 
is not so precious as in the spring; nurserymen usually charge somewhat 
less for stock delivered in the autumn. Whether or not planting can be 
done in the fall, it is a good plan to have the trees delivered before winter 
so as to have them on hand for spring planting at just the proper time, thus 
avoiding possible delays of shipment in spring. Such trees may be "heeled- 
in" until spring. 

To Heel-in Trees dig or plow a trench a foot or more deep, preferably 
running east and west. Make the north side vertical and the south with a 
long slant. Unpack the trees, prune the mangled and broken roots, and 
lay in the trench with their trunks on the slanting side. Bury both 
roots and tops with soil packed around the roots. Remove all litter 
that might favor mouse nests. In spring dig up and plant the trees as if 
just received. 

Marking Out the Field. — This may be done by sighting, plowing or 
any other handy way that will get the rows straight. For convenience in 
handhng it is a good plan in the home orchard to choose some unit measure 
that will suit all kinds of fruits. The rod is perhaps as good as any because 
peaches, sour cherries, plums, quinces, dwarf pears and apricots may be set 
that distance apart. Sweet cherries, standard pears and the smaller 



74 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

growing ai)i)l(' varieties require two rods, and the wide .si^rcading apple 
varieties tiiree rods. 

Mixed Plantings are not considered wise by commercial orchardists. 
Each kind of fruit is kept in a block by itself. This favors uniform treat- 
ment. In home jilantinps, however, such a plan is not always feasible; 
so that by giving a little extra attention the general farmer maj- have all 
his fruit crops together in one area. Bush fruits and strawberries will not 
do well after the trees come into bearing, but up to that time they may be 
grown between the trees. Where the rod is the unit of measure, two rows 
t>f bush fruits may b<' jjjaced between the tree rows live feet three inches 
from the trees, thus making them six feet ajjart and allowing for the planting 
of one row of strawberries or truck between them. The strawberries will 
give one good crop, perhaps two, before the bushes will need the space and 
the bushes will give two to jx-rhaps four crops before they will have to be 
removed to get best results from the trees. 

If desired one row of grapes may run between the trees, thus leaving 
eight feet three inches between it and the trees. But since grapes do well 
for ten or more years, they had better be placed at the side of the orchard. 
Besides strawl)erries, various vegetables may b<' planted between the tree 
rows for two to five or six years. It is a gootl plan to j^lace the V)ush fruits 
in checks so cultivation may be given in two directions from the start. 

The Operation of Planting offers no difficulty. The holes should be 
dug large enough to take in the roots without serious bending, though 
bending is not of much consequence. I'he largest roots should be turned 
toward the prevailing wind. AVhen the holes are dug the top soil should be 
laid in one jiile and the subsoil in another. Then when the tree is placed in 
the hole — never more than two inches deeper than it stoc^d in the nursery 
row — the top soil should be worked among the roots and tramped down 
hard. Finally, the subsoil should be placed on top, tramix'd down and a 
few shovelfuls of soil scattered loosely on top to check evaporation of 
W'ater from the grotmd. 

First Pruning. — After the trees have been planted they should be 
pruned. All l)uny, inferior twigs should be removed, only three to five 
well-placed ones being left at least a hanil's breadth ai)art on the trunk. 
If these are two hand-breadths apart, so much the better, because there 
will Ix) less danger of si)litting when loaded with fruit or ice. The frame 
limbs should be cut back a half or more. I'sually, the leader should be cut 
out to make the tree ojien-headed. 

The lowest limb should be iifteen mches to two feet from the ground 
to favor low heading with all its advantages of easy pruning, spraying, 
thinning and harvesting, to say nothing of lessened wind damage. I'Aten- 
sion tillage tot)ls will cultivate close to the trunks when the trees get large. 
Until then, ordinary harrows and cultivators will serve every j)uriK>se. 
During the first year, leaves should nev<'r be pulletl from the trunk and 
branches. The tree needs them to ripen its wood. If removed the trees 



PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 



75 



will develop longer limbs to get more leaves and these limbs -^vill have to be 
cut off later to bring the tree within bounds. If there are twigs among the 
trunk leaves, they should be cut off the following spring. 

How Fruit Buds are Borne. — Much of the success of fruit growing 
depends on intelligent pruning, and this on a knowledge of the way each 
plant produces its fruit buds. Apples and pears produce theirs mostly on 
short twigs in alternate years with leaf buds. These fruit spurs become 
gnarly as they grow old, but as long as they continue to bear they should 
be allowed to remain, unless the tree is producing too heavily. Then some 
may be cut out. Other trees that produce fruit more or less on spurs 




tip;: 

Before and After Pruning. ^ 




are cherry, plum, apricot, almond, currant and gooseberry. Some produce 
their buds on the sides of the shoots, not on spurs. Of these the peach is the 
leader, though almonds, Japanese plums, and apricots also do this more or 
less. All these trees develop fruit buds one year and blossom the following 
spring. These fruit buds may be distinguished from leaf buds during winter 
because they are round-topped and plump instead of pointed and thin. 

There is another group, the plants of which develop blossom buds in 
the same season as they blossom and bear fruit. Quince and medlar each 
bear blossoms on the ends of short green shoots developed in early spring. 
Raspberries, blackberries, dewberries and oranges produce their blossoms 
more or less terminally on lateral summer shoots. Grape, mulberry, olive 

1 Courtesy of The Macmillan Company, N. Y. From "The Principles of Fruit Growing," by Bailey. 
28 



76 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

and persimmon i)nKluce strong shoots or canos from branch buds which 
have wintered ovi-r. On these the blossom buds are borne. The loquat 
bears its ])l()ssoiii buds at the tips of terminal shoots of the same se:\son. 

Pruning for Fruit. — In pruning for fruit, it is evident that the plants 
in these various gi-oups nuist l)e i)runed difTerentiy. A])]il<'S, j)ears and 
other i)lants whicii iiold tlicir bloom l)uds over winter may be encouraged 
to bear by summer pruning about the time the shoots have ceased to 
extend. This tends to develop blossom buds. Pruning of these plants 
during the dormant season, on the other liand, tends to imxluce wood at 
the expense of fruit production. (Consult bulletins of the Tennessee Experi- 
ment Station on "Sunnuer Pruning.") 

Plants in the second general group are usually pruned in spring, when 
the number of buds left will indicate approximately how many fruits or 
clusters of fruits will be j^roduccd — one for each quince bud, two or three 
clusters of grapes for each grajjc bud, and so on. Pruning of tlu^se jilants, 
therefore, is equivalent to thinning, for it limits the number of fruits to be 
set and helps imjirove the size and quality of the s]XK'imens. 

Pruning Older Trees. — In i)runing trees great care should be taken to 
make tiic wounds close to the main trunk or limbs. If a limb to be cut off 
is large, the saw should first be used beneath it a foot or so away from the 
crotch. \Vlien the saw sticks, a second cut should be made al)ove so the 
limb will droj) off easily. Then the stub may be cut off close to the trunk 
without danger of s])litting or t<'aring the tree and making an ugly, slow- 
healing wound. Beyond the removal of branches that cross each other 
young trees pro})erly started and trained should need little or no pruning 
unless they break down. 

Tillage. — ( )rchards in sod have in commercial practice practically 
given i)lace to tilled orchards. AVhere success attends sod treatment, some 
other factor is usually evident enough upon study of the situation. The 
experiment station at Geneva, N. Y., has reported that a sod-mulched 
orchard under t<'n-year ex]KTiment yielded higher colored, earlier maturing 
fruit than a tilled orchard of the same variety and otherwise handled the 
same way, but that the tilled orchard yielded heavily and uniformly, gave 
fruit of bett<'r quality, larger size, longer keeping, less dead wood in the 
trees and better foliage and growth. Sod lowers the water supply and soil 
t<'mperature, decreases certain i)lant-foods. reduces humus and air supply 
in soil, inii)airs work of soil bacteria, and forms substances that impair 
tre<i health. Sod, however, has sjx^cial use where tillage is imjMJSsible 
cither because of the steep slopes or stony land. 

Tillage should start with the preparation of the land for ])lanting and 
Ix' done yearly while the i>lants remain profitable. The advantage of this 
is that the roots are encouragecl to g<» de<'ply and thus withstand dry weather 
as well as escape the plow. Ivich year oix^rations should Ih> U>gun as early 
as the land can Iw worked and continue until the twigs have reached th(>ir 
full length about midsunuuer. iiitween mid and late sunmier, tillage 



PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 77 

should stop to give trees or shrubs a chance to ripen their growth to with- 
stand the winter. Unless this is done, growth may continue too late in the 
fall, and the plants suffer during winter in consequence. 

Fertilizing. — While it may be true that land which will grow any farm 
crops will grow fruit without manuring, yet most money is made from fruit 
crops fed to get higher quality, larger size, better color and the other points 
that make for higher prices. How much and what kind to apply will depend 




Picking Apples in the Rogue River Valley, Oregon. i 



upon the character of the soil, the kind of crop and so on. Many farmers 
and fruit growers put the question to the land itself by trying experiments 
with various combinations of fertihzers until they find out the one best 
suited to the desired end. In general, it must be remembered that nitro- 
genous plant-food tends to be lost by seepage and also to produce wood 
rather than fruit; hence, it must be handled with greater caution than 
either potash or phosphoric acid, neither of which is lost to any serious 
extent from the soil ; nor does either jeopardize the ability of the plants to 
withstand winter injury. 



1 Courtesy of Portland Commercial Club, Portland, Oregon. 



78 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Thinning is stemlily RiiininR popularity in the East, mainly l>ccaust' it 
tends to i)rocluce larger, finer six>cimens, to make the trees more hardy and 
to establish regular annual hearing. Even the liaklwin apple, perhaj)s the 
most notorious biennial cropjxr, has been made to produce i)rofital)le 
crojjs fifteen out of seventeen consecutive years. 

Spraying has now become so general that no one thinks of ])lanting 
fruit without counting upon it. The first point to rememlx^r is that it must 
be d()n<> with discrimination; for a jilant disease cannot be combated with 
an insecticide nor vice versa. Second, sj)raying for ])lant diseases must Ik? 
preventive; no n^medy is known for diseast^s which have gained entrance 
to the plant tissues. Third, sprays for insects must be suited to the kind of 
insects. Those that bite off and swallow pieces of plant tissue mu.st l)c 
poisoned internally, and tliose that merely suck the juice from the plant 
killed by some substance which chokes, burns or otherwise destroys them 
through their skins. Experiment station literature is rich in information 
on methods of control. 

Harvesting and Marketing are rai)idly becoming more ])usines.slike. 
Clrowers are recognizing the advantages from grading their fruit and selling 
each grade for what it is. They are also learning that the laws which si)ecify 
standard sizes for packages are steps in the right direction, so are adopting 
the new standards with i)r()fit to themselves and their cdMimunities. 

The Value and Importance of the Home Fruit Garden to the general 
farmer lies mainly in the variety of pleasures as well as in the addition to 
the (Uet supplied. Such a plantation should contain all kinds of fruits so 
the table may be supplied from the time strawberries first ripen till the 
last winter apples are used the following year wlun strawberries come in 
again. 

Two or three rows of strawberries one Inmdred feet long, one each of 
black, red and purple ra.s])berries, one of dewberries, and one or two of 
blackberries or loganberries should suj)ply an average sized family through- 
out the year with fresh and canned fruit, jelly, jam and pres(>rves. Twenty- 
five i)lants each of gooseberries and ciuTants should sufhce. By ch<M>sing 
early and late maturing grape varieties, such a family should Ih» able to 
eat the product of twenty or thirty vines, ]K'rhaps more. A dozen or a 
score of plum, peach and cherr>' trees, early and late, a,s many each of 
dwarf and standard jx-ars, perh;ii)s half a dozen (juinces, and forty or fifty 
apples trees begiiuiing with a few sununer a])ples, continuing through fall 
varieties and ending with at least half or perhaps two-thirds of the trees 
of varieties that reach their best between Cliristmas and May Day will 
supi)ly the needs of the .average familw 

Quality First for the Home.— In .all cases the choice of varieties for the 
home sliould fall on fruits of l)est cjuality, citluT for de.>i.sert. for cooking or 
preserving. For local markets fewer varieties, preferably the Invst known 
kinds of the section, should be given preference. N<'Ver choose for business 
puriJObCb varietiea that have not been fully tcbted locally, no matter how 



PRINCIPLES OF FRUIT PRODUCTION 79 

famous they may be elsewhere. They may fail to come up to their standard 
estabUshed in some other sections. 

REFERENCES 

"Principles of Fruit Growing." Bailey. 

"Popular Fruit Growing." Green. 

"How to Make a Fruit Garden." Fletcher. 

"Fruit Growing in Arid Regions." Paddock and Whipple. 

"Beginners' Guide to Fruit Growing." Waugh. 

"Propagation of Plants." Fuller. 

"Fruit Harvesting and Storing." Austin. 

"Nursery Book." Bailey. 

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin 134. "Experimental Results of Young Orchards 

in Pennsylvania." 
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 

211. "Fruits Recommended for Planting." 

212. "An Orchard Survey." 



CHAPTER 8 
Small Fruits 

By Phofkssou L. C. Corbett 

In charge of Ilorticullural and Pomological Investigations, United 

/States Department of Agriculture 

The small fruit interests of the United States are made up of a diversity 
of fruits adapted to a wide range of territory' and conditions. The cash 
value of these crops approximates $20,000,000 annually, two-thirds of 
which is derivetl from the strawberry', the most cosmopolitan of the small 
fruits. The second place is contested })y the rasji])erry and the hlacklH-rry, 
both of which are imjxjrtant money crops, and the fourth crop of imix)rtance 
is the cranberrj', which is restricted both by climate and by soil require- 
ments. Each of the important small fruits is here given a brief but, it 
is hoped, clear and concise treatment. 

THE STRAWBERRY 

The garden strawberry is an American product. It atlapts itself to a 
wider range of latitude and to greater extremes in en^^romnent than any 
other cultivated fruit. It is universally liked and is cosmopolitan in its 
adaptations. 

Selection of Soil. — The soil Ix^st suited to the cultivation of the straw- 
Ix'rry in the nort lua-stern part of the United States is a sandy or gravelly 
loam. A warm, quick soil, although naturally poor, is to Ih> preferred to a 
heavy, retentive soil well suj>plied with plant-food. The lacking plant- 
food can easily be sui^plied l)y the addition of fertilizers, while the j)hysic;U 
characteristics of the .soil can Ik* modified only with great difficulty by culti- 
vation, drainage and the addition of organic matter. Congenial soil and 
exjM)sure are, therefore, important considerations. 

Preparation of the Soil. — The land to Ih^ devoted to strawl>^rries 
should, if ])os>ilil(', !>(' i)lant<Hl in a cultivated crop, such as ix)tatoes, 
beans or com, at least one year previous to setting the plants, in order that 
the larvjp of such insects as wirewonns, white grubs, cutworms, etc., may 
\xi as completely eliminated ;is possible. 

Previous to s<-tting the plants the .soil should l>e dcM^ply plowed in order 
that all organic matter t)f whatever nature on the surface may i>v comjjletely 
turned unchr. Immediately following the plow the land .should Ix' thor- 
ouglily pulverized by the u.s<' of the harrow, and the surface should be 
reduced to a condition which would form an ideal seed-bed. 

80 



SMALL FRUITS 



81 



Fertilizers.^ — If the soil is not rich, for best results it should have a 
dressing of at least twenty cartloads of well-decomposed stable manure 
per acre, either plowed under or incorporated ^dth the soil by surface 
culture after plo^o-ing. If stable manure is not available, plant-food should 
be supplied by a liberal use of fine-ground bone and chemical manures rich 
in nitrogen and potash. The use upon the plants at blooming time of 
highly nitrogenous manures, such as nitrate of soda, at the rate of about 
100 pounds per acre often proves of great value. If it can be applied in 
solution it vnll give quicker results than if put on in the form of a salt. 




A Spray of Good Stra'W'berries. 
Uniformity in size and form increases the market price. 



Selecting and Preparing the Plants. — Plants with small crowns, i. e., 
a moderate growth of leaves, and with an abundant development of fibrous 
roots, are most desirable. If the cro^Ti and the roots of the plant are 
in good condition, the success of the plantation is assured, provided the 
ground has been well prepared and the work of planting is done with 
care. 

Perfect and Imperfect Flowered Plants. — Strawberries occur with 
imperfect (or pistillate) flowers as well as with perfect flowers (those 
containing both stamens and pistils). It is important to give careful 
attention to this point in planting a plantation, as a patch made up of 
pistillate sorts alone will be unproductive, while many such sorts when 



82 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



propt'rly intiTspcrscd witli ixTfect-flowcred varii-tics have j)rovtd to be 
the largest fruit^^d and iiio.st prolific sorts. A common practice is to set 
evor>' fourth or fifth row with a jHTfcct-flowircd sort which Mooms at the 
same jicriod as the i)istillat(' variety of which the i)lantation is chiefly 
composed. 

When to Set the Plants. — The time to i)laiit depends, in humid regions, 
more upon the rainfall t haii ujxtn any other factor. If there are not timely 
rains at the jilaiiting season to give the i)lants an o])j)()rttinity to estaMish 
tiiemselves, the stand will he uneven, \\ith the result that more work will i>e 
required to keep the land free from weeds and more trouble will be neces- 




Plantin(; a Strawberky Runner. 

On tho right a plant rnrrcctly iilanfod, showing roots sjiroad out; on the left a plant 

put in in the wronii position with roots crowded toRother. 



sary to fill the blank spaces with runners from the i)lMnts that survive. The 
plants that withstand the drought are checked and dwarfed. Tliey seldom 
recover so jvs to nuike eitluT satisfactory croi)|>ers or plant producers. It 
is most satisfactory and most economical, therefon*, to choose that sea.son 
which ofTers most advantages at ])lanting time, other things being ('(jual. 
It is imi)ossible to specify the s<'as(»n for each locality or even for large areas, 
as l(K'al conditions of soil and climate necessitate different practices in 
localities only a short distance apart. In general there are only two .«?ea.'*ons 
for planting — spring and auttnnn — l>ut in some localities spring ])lanting 
should be done in Ai)ril or .May by the use of the i)receding season's plants, 
while in others it may be donr in .lunr from the crop of runners of the sjune 
season. 



SMALL FRUITS 83 

In irrigated regions planting can be done at whatever season the work 
will give best results in future crop production. In humid regions rainfall 
is a determining factor. 

How to Set the Plants. — Success in transplanting strawberry plants 
depends, first, on the quality of the plant, and, second, upon the time and 
manner of doing the work. If the plants are good, the stand, other condi- 
tions being favorable, depends upon care in setting them. The success of 
this operation is measured by the degree of compactness of the soil about 
the roots of the plant. If the plant has many roots and these are thrust into 
a hole made by an ordinary dibble, it is more difficult to get the earth in 
contact ^vith the roots than when the plant has fewer roots. The plant 
with the greatest number of feeding roots is, however, the most desirable 
if properly handled. Such plants should be set in a broad, flat hole where 
the roots can be spread out in natural form. By giving the crown of the 
plant a whirl between the thumb and finger to throw the roots out like the 
ribs of an umbrella and quickly putting it in place while the roots are still 
thrown out from the crown, the normal position of the root system can be 
closely approached. 

Another very satisfactory method is to open a broad wedge-shaped 
hole by thrusting the blade of a bright spade into the soil and moving the 
handle forward. The roots of the plant are then spread in fan shape and 
placed in the hole back of the spade. The spade is then withdrawn and 
inserted about six inches further forward, and by a backward movement 
of the handle the earth is firmly pressed against the roots of the plant. 
Two persons — a man to operate the spade and a boy to place the plants — 
can set plants very rapidly in this manner. This practice is particularly 
well suited to localities with sparse rainfall, as it thoroughly compacts the 
earth about the roots of the plant and allows the roots to extend full length 
into the moist soil. Plants set in this way have their roots more deeply 
inserted in the soil than when the roots are spread out in umbrella fashion 
and as deeply as when set with a dibble. They also have the additional 
advantage of being spread out so as to have a larger percentage of their 
surface actually in contact with the soil than when set with a round dibble. 
Depth to Set the Plants. — No plant which the gardener has to handle 
is more exacting in regard to depth of planting than the strawberry. As 
the plant is practically stemless, the base of the leaves and the roots being 
so close together, care is required to avoid setting the plant so deep that the 
terminal bud will be covered or so shallow that the upper portion of the 
roots will be exposed, either being a disadvantage which frequently results 
in the death of the plant. 

Planting in Hills. — For the hill system of culture plants are set singly 
either 3 by 3 feet apart, or with the rows 4 feet apart and the plants 2 feet 
apart in the row, depending upon the character of the soil and the length 
of time the plantation is to be maintained. In Florida a common practice 
is to lay the land off in broad beds 8 to 12 feet wide, the rows of plants to 



R4 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

run lengthwise of the beds, the rows 24 inches apart, with the i)lants 18 
inches apart in the rows. Such beds afford sufficient drainage and hold the 
iiuilch better than narrow beds or raised rows, and the space between the 
plants admits li^ht to all sides of the j)lant — an advantage in eolnring the 
fruits which can not be s<'cured by the matted row system early in the 
season in the; climate of Florida. 

A common jiractice is to set the plants in single tows 4 feet apart, 
with the plants 12 inches apart in the row. The runners which develop 
from these i)lants are then allowed to take possession of the area for 6 to 
9 inches on cither side of the original plants, thus making a matted row 12 
to 18 inches wide; this leaves 30 inches between the rows, which allows 
ainjile space for cultivation and gathering the fruit. This space can be 
reduced from 30 inches to as little as 18 inches where land is valuable and 
it is necessary to secun^ maximum returns; on tliin soil, however, the greater 
distance is most satisfactory. 

Renewing Old Beds. — There is one advantage in the narrow cultivated 
space. Al'tei- 1 he second cro]) has been harvested the runners can l)e allowed 
to take i)ossession of the cultivated middle, and when the young j)lants 
become thoroughly established the original rows can be broken uji with a 
narrow turning plow or a sharp cultivator. In this way a patch can be 
very satisfactorily and clicaj)ly renewed, and by a lil>eral use of suital)le 
fertilizers the rotation can be kej)t up on tiie same soil for several yeai-s. 
Some planters ])refer to set the j)lants for the matted row in a double row 
at planting time. The practice is to establish two rows 12 inches ajjart, 
6 inches on each side of the center of the matted belt, setting the plants 
2 feet apart in each row and alternating the jilants in the row, so that the 
plants actually stand a little over a foot ai)art as shown in the accompanying 
diagram : 



Cultivation. — Clean and sliallow culture are the watchwords of success- 
ful cultivators. By conserving moisture, cultivation tends to coimterbal- 
ance tiie evil effect of drought. A l)ett(>r stand of plants can be maintained 
during a dry i)eriod on well-tillecl ground than ujjon ground that is poorly 
cultivated. The mechanical effect of grinding the .soil ui)on itself during 
cultivation reduces it to smaller particles, thus exjwsing more surface 
to the action of soil moisture, and, as a iv.sult, increasing the available 
plant-food of the soil. The l)enelit fronj i)reserving a soil mulch, with 
its con.st^quent economy in the use of soil moisture, is sufficiently imiwrtant 
to justify thorougli tillage. 

Objects of Mulching. — Covering the surface of the soil with dead or 
decaying veuetal»Ie matter is the meaning of the term nnilching as here 
used. Mulching serves different purixises, dei)ending upi>n the h»cality 



SMALL FRUITS 



85 



in which the plants are grown. A mulch acts as a protection from cold, 
prevents freezing and thawing and the consequent lifting of the plants 
("heaving out"); it retards growth in cold regions by shading the crowns 
and maintaining a low soil temperature longer than in soil not mulched; 
it acts as a conserver of moisture, discourages weed growth by smothering 
the young seedling, and finally protects the fruit from contact with the soil. 

Materials for Mulch. — Whole or cut straw free from grains, strawy 
manure from the horse stable, and pine straw from the forest are among 
the more common mulching materials. In certain sections marsh hay, 
either from fresh or salt water marshes, is a common and very satisfactory 
mulching material. 

When to Apply the Mulch. — At the North where the soil is likely to 
freeze and thaw several times in the course of the winter, it is the practice 




American Quart Boxes of Well-Graded Strawberries.* 
"Fancy" on the right, "No. 1" on the left. 

to put on the mulch as soon as the ground is sufficiently frozen to allow 
driving upon it with a loaded cart or wagon. Where the freezing of the soil 
is only superficial or only temporary, if at all, the mulch serves the purpose 
of a protection from wind more than from frost, and in such sections the 
mulch is put on as soon as active growth ceases, usually early in December- 
and is allowed to remain until after the crop is harvested. 

Harvesting and Shipping. — The time of gathering the fruit, as well 
as the manner of handling, is governed by the use to which it is to be put. 
If intended for a local market, much riper fruits can be handled than when 
they are to be shipped long distances. 

The most progressive growers of strawberries for local markets not 
only give particular attention to the ripeness of the fruit, but to assorting 

1 From J'armers' Bulletin 664, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



86 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

and gnulinn iu> well, only large, perfect berries being placed in the first 
gnidt' and :dl Mnall or soiled fruits in the second. 

Receptacles. — Whether it is to lie shii)ped in crates or refrigerator 
carriers or to i>c carried to the local market, for best results the fruit should 
not 1)C rehandlocl after it is picked. 'J'he j)ickers should l>c trained to do the 
ncces.sary assorting and grading iia they i)i(k the fruit in the receptacles 
in which it is to be marketed. 

The light splint-wood basket, holding one (iii;iii,is the most pop- 
ular and most universally used. Many ditTcrent forms of box or basket 
have been designed, and various materials other than wood have been used 
in their construction, but up to the i)resent none lias met with general 
adoption. 

THE RASPBERRY 

The name raspberry, as used in the I'nited States, embraces four 
distinct species of i)lants, three of which are of American origin, thus 
placing to the credit of our native plants three imi)oi-tant and widely 
cultivated culinary fruits. The two types of fruits represented by these 
species are known jiopularlj' as vvd raspberries and black nusjiberries or 
"blackcaps." 

The red-raspberry group, as k presented in cultivation, includes not 
only the native; red ivispberry but the iMiropean red ras})l>erry, or bramble, 
and a tyjw intermediate between the native red and black rasjjberry, which 
bears a purj)le fruit and is frequently spoken of as the *'i)uri)le-cane'' 
rasjiberry or as the "Schafer grouj)." The red-raspberrj' group, Ixjsides 
having varieties which produce the characteristic red fruits, has another 
set of varieties which i)r()du('e amber or yellow fruit. These horticultural 
varieties are recognized and are considereil tiistinct sorts, but are not 
separated botanically into difTerent siK'cies. 

The black raspl)erry is distinct both in habit of growth and in the 
makeup of its fruit. It is recognizcHl botanically as a species distinct from 
the three which enter into the red-rasi)berry group. The habits of this 
plant and the quality of its Ix'rries are such that it has gained an imjwrtant 
place in certain sections of this country as a commercial fruit. 

The fact that the varieties of the red-berry type have to l)e marketed 
from the bushes as .soon as ripe confines their cultivation to the vicinity 
of large centei-s of consumption, where climatic and soil conditions favor 
their development. The black-ra-sjiberry industry, however, can he 
[irofitably and successfully carried on in regions more remote from the 
centers of consumption, because of the fact that a large proportion of the 
fruits are evaporated and are .sold in a dry state, there being rcady sale for 
them wlicn liaiidU'd in this way. 

Red Raspberries. — The red-raspl)erry grouji includes varieties which 
lM\'ir fruits of various shades of red, amU'r, yellow and imrple. the last- 
named division being a hybrid between the red and the black tyix^s. 



SMALL FRUITS 



87 



Selection and Preparation of SoiL — The soil upon which red rasp- 
berries thrive best is a sandy or clay loam of a glacial drift formation. 
They thrive well upon moderately rich, deep soils and yield largest returns 
under these conditions. 

The preparation of the soil for red raspberries should be the same 
as for any small fruit, preferably one or two seasons' preparatory tillage 
in a "hoe crop," which will to a very large extent rid the land of weeds. 
Such crops as potatoes, beans, cowpeas and plants of this nature are good 
preparatory crops. 

Planting. — The distance to plant will depend very largely upon the 
purpose for which the plantation is intended. If it is a commercial plan- 




Land that will Produce Good Farm Crops will Produce Bush Fruits.^ 



tation upon soil which is not especially valuable, the plants should be 3 
feet apart in the row, and the rows not less than 6 feet apart. This will 
allow of cultivation in both directions for two or three years, and will 
permit the use of horse-power implements, and consequently will lessen 
greatly the cost of tillage. On city lots or in a home fruit garden, where it 
becomes desirable to combine in the same plantation raspberries and other 
fruit-bearing plants, the distance can be somewhat lessened, but even under 
these conditions the plants should not be set closer than 2 feet apart in the 
row and the rows not less than 4 feet apart. 

In home fruit gardens small holes can be opened with a spade, the plant 
roots spread in the ordinary fashion for jalanting larger plants, and the 

1 Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



8.S 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



eurtli n'tiirne*!; but in all ciisoh it. hIiouIcI l)c the aim to firm the earth well 
over tlic mots of the |)lantH !is tlicy arc set. 

Cultivation. — (Iran cultivation is ncceasar>' with rod ra.spl terries, 
because, as above stalecl, they are iheniseives of a weedy nature, and, in 
order to hold them within bounds, implements which cut all the superllu<ni.s 
Bhoots and root sprouts from the cultivated area should l)e used. During 
the early life of the plantation it would be found most economical to keep 

the plants in check-rows so that culti- 
^ati(^n by horse-] )ower can l>e accom- 
plisluMJ in two directions. Later, 
however, as the |»lantation grows 
older, it. will be found advantanoous, 
b(»t li in yield of fruit, and for economy, 
to allow t he j^lants to form a hedne or 
jnalted row, and to jiractice cultiva- 
t ion in one direction only. The si)ace 
between the licdges should be plowed 
at le/ist once each year, and whether 
this shall bo done in the spring or in 
the autumn will depend upon the 
locality. 

Fertilizers. — The liberal use (»f 
stable niMnure (20 tons per acre) will 
l)roducc large yielfls of fruit, but the 
use of a ct)mplctc fertilizer, containing 
nitrogen 4.5 i)er cent, phosphoric 
acid (available) 7.7 per cent, pota.sh 
V.iM per cent, at the rate of otX) 
poun<ls JMT acre gives a greater net 
j)rofit, at less outlay. 

Pruning. — Ucd raspberries re- 
fpiire attention to direct their growth 
and fruit jyroduction, at twt) seasons 
of the year. They should Ik? pruned 
in the sunmier, during the growing 
AYouNaPLANnNarANBORRAH..uKimY ,„ regulate the height of the 

.Showing I'liiimua H«)«»TH. , . , i r • /■ 

canes and uuluce the fornuition »)f 

fruiting wood for the following season, and again during the winter or 
early spring for the purpose* of eliminating the canes which bore last sea.»*on. 
'J'his will allow all the energy of the root of the plant to Ix.* directed to the 
production of fruit ami th(^ formation of the next st^ason's bearing wchmI. 
The sunnner pruning, which is not generally practiced with ivii rju<i>- 
berries, consists in to|)ping the young shoots when they have attained a 
height «»f from 18 to 120 inches. This induces tin- development <»f side slnKits 
and the production of additional sprouts from the ixkA. Hoth these tyjK'S 





i 

I 

1 








1 








I 






^ 

\>^ 


ryTy 


\^ 


N 






j \ ^ 








» "1 " 


•\ 



SMALL FRUITS m 

of growth are desirable in order to insure us large a growth ol' wood ;i.s 11,(! 
plants can carry to advantage. 

The winter pruning is a jjrocoss of elimination. All can(^s which have 
served their ])uri)os(; as fi'uii produ('(!rs are niuioved, as ai'(! all dead <,i' 
diseased canes, thus reducing the demands up(;n the r(;ots of tl;e ].lant and 
directing the energy to the wood intended for fruit production. 

Harvesting the Fruit.— l*>(H*ause of tlu; soft (!hai-act(T of this fruit, 
it can t)(! su(tc(ssfully harvesi(!d only by hand ])i(!king. Hniall nscc^i.taclcs 
liolding not rnor(! tlian a ])int, and preferably thos(; inade of wo(;(l, ar(! hcst 
suit(!d for luuidling this crop. Under favorable con(liti(;ns, the yield <A 
the better sorts of red raspberries, particularly of the native ivaI and purj ie 
cane types, is very large, and where they can In; ])lac(Ml ujx/H tlie maiket 
quickly after bf^ing pick(Hl they are a v(!ry ])rofitabl(! crop. 

Black Raspberries, or Blackcaps. — '^I'he black laspberry, or blackcjij), 
because it lends itself to s(;v('ral methods of harvesting and n)arketing, is 
capable of a wider range of ccjnunercial cultivation than any of the tyj (!s 
of the red rasplxjrry, although it is not cajiable of withslanding so seven; 
climatic condilions. 

Propagation. — The ])lack raspberry does not throw up ro(-t s] niils, 
and is propagat(!d only from stolons or layers. In ord(!r to s(!cur(! n(;w 
plants the tips (jf the branches are bent over and slightly covered wilh 
earth during 1lie month of August, aflcr wliich tlujy take root i-('adily. 
■^Ihe rooted tij)S are usually \v.\'i ;dla(;hed to the i)arent stalk until tlu; 
follov/ing spring, when the branch is cut 6 or 8 inches above tlie surface of 
the ground, the roots being lifted, tied in bunches and st<jred for use or 
carried to th(! j)lac(! where they are to 1)C replant(;d. 

Character of the Soil, — Pjlack rasi)berri(!S grow best on a soil which is 
fertile and naturally well drained, rather than one which is moist. Strong 
loams of a clayey or gravelly nature are prefei red to the lighter sandy soils. 

Preparation of the Soil. — 'J'he same geneial j)»c|)aration of the soil 
as outlined for tin; j'ed juspberry is necessary for best results with the 
black raspberry, Prejjaratory treatment with cultivated crojjs in order 
to rid tli(! land as thoroughly as possible of weeds is desirable. 

Planting. — The distance at which black raspberries arc usually s(!l 
in ctnnmercial plantations is .3 feet ai)aH, in rows whicrh are 8 feet aj)art. 
'i'he same method of ])lanting as d(!scribc;d for red raspb(!rries— that is, 
opening a furrow with the j)low, placing the roots at the j)roi)er distances 
in the row and covering with a turning i)low — is very convenient and 
satisfactory. 

Cultivation. — T'lean cultivation is equally as desirable for the black 
raspberry as for the roA raspberry, because weeds between tlu; rows inter- 
fere with the later operations in the berry field. While cultivation should 
not be carried on so late in the season as to interfere with the harvesting 
of the fruit, it should be suffieiently thorough and continued late enough 
to keep the ground free fnjm weeds. 



90 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Winter Protection. — In some portions of tlie Northern states the 

riuspln'iry can Ik* successfully fniilod only l»y KiviuK it some ft»rni of protec- 
tion (iuririK winter. One of the simplest met hods of affunlinn such protec- 
tion is to hend the canes of the plant all in one direction alon^ the line of 
the row and fasten them either by jjlacin^ earth ui)on them or pejjKing them 
down. The roots are slightly locsened on one side of each plant and the 
canes are hent over the roots of its nei^hhor. After the tops have heen 
properly placetl a mound of earth is thrown over them. If after cold weather 
sets in the earth covering; is d(>emed inade(piate, additional jirotection may 
be provi(l(>d hy a layer of .straw, strawy mamire or corn fodder. 

Fertilizers. — Stable manure in moderate cjuantities, supplemented by 
a fertilizer carrying; 4 to 5 per cent of nitrogen, 10 to 12 per cent of phos- 
phoric acid and from G to 8 per cent of j)otash, will j)rove beneficial. Such 
a fertilizer, if apj^lied at the rate of from 300 to P>()i) pounds i)er acre, should 
so increase the yield as to make its use profitable. 

Pruning. — Hecause of its manner of fruit bearing, the black raspl^erry 
requires care in annual pruning; in fact, j)runinp; nnist be done at two .^sea- 
sons of the year in order to accomi)lish the best results. The young shoots 
as they appear from the roots in the spring should be tipped or disl)udded 
when they reach the lieight of 18 inches. It is better to go over the plan- 
tation fre{|uently, making three or four ir'ips in all, in order to tip the 
canes when they are al)out the height mentioned, rather than to delay the 
ojxjration until some of them have reached a height of 2 to 2J feet. The 
early pincliing or disbudding induces the development of more numerous 
lateral branches. Shoots which liave been allowed to harden and to grow 
2 or 3 feet in height will form few lateral branches. If tipped wlien IS inches 
high, a cane should ])roduce four, five, or six lateral branches. If allowed 
to attain a height of 3 feet and then cut back to 18 inches, it is probable 
that not more than two or three lateral branches will be formed; and, 
since these lateral brandies form the fruit-bearing wood of the succeetling 
season, it is very desirable that tlie greatest ptissible number of branches 
be secured to insure a heavy croj) of fruit. It is evident, therefore, that 
summer pruning predetermines the crop for the succeeding year more than 
does any other single cultural factor. 

The .scc(jnd pruning, which is also important, consists in removing the 
canes which bore the last croj) of fruit. This work can be (k)ne at any 
time after the crop has been harvested, but jireferably during the spring 
following the crop. If the work is done in the si)ring the lateral branches 
borne by the canes which developed from the roots of the mother plant 
should at the .same time 1k> shortened to about S to 12 inches in length. 
From each bud of these siiort l)ranches annual growth will he made which 
will terminate in a fruit cluster. 

Harvesting. — Black raspberries to h>e mark(>ted as fresh fruit for imme- 
diate consumption are always hanil picked and placed in either pint or 
quart boxes similar to those used for strawberries. Those to be dried or 



SMALLFRUITS 91 

evaporated, or to be marketed as dried raspberries, may be either hand 
picked or harvested with a mechanical contrivance called a "bat." This 
consists of a frame of light lumber a few inches deep backed up by strong 
cloth against which the ripe fruit strikes as it is jarred from the bushes by 
tapping them gently with a light stick or "bat," while the cloth-covered 
frame is held under the plants in such a position as to catch the fruits as 
they fall. Such fruits, after drying, are run through a fanning mill to sepa- 
rate leaves and stems, after which they are hand picked in much the same 
manner as beans, to remove all imperfect and green fruits, as well as those 
which still hold the receptacle. 

THE BLACKBERRY 

The blackberry in the United States is a native bramble of wide distri- 
bution over the eastern and northern part of the country. The fruit of the 
wild blackberry was an important factor in the supply of condiments 
provided by the early settlers. The esteem in which this fruit was held 
led to the cultivation of some of the wild plants producing berries of supe- 
rior size or flavor, or those ripening in advance of the main crop, or such as 
lagged behind and thus extended the season for the fresh fruit. Such 
selections from the wild blackberries and their seedlings furnish the culti- 
vated sorts of today. What may yet appear is suggested by some of the 
remarkable hybrids which have already been produced in this genus such 
as the Logan berry. The chief considerations in the selection of a location 
for a blackberry plantation are the facilities for harvesting and marketing 
the crop and the moisture condition of the soil. The fruit of the blackberry 
is highly perishable and will not endure rough handling in harvesting or 
long journeys over rough roads. 

Few crops are more adversely affected by a lack of adequate moisture 
during the period of development and ripening than the blackberry, but 
an excess of moisture during the dormant period is equally as detrimental. 

Soil. — The blackberry is not exacting as regards the general type 
of soil and will do fairly well on a clay, clay loam or sandy loam. The 
largest yields are on deep, rich soils which provide an extensive feeding 
area for the roots of the plants. 

The preparation for blackberries should be such as to provide a 
deep, mellow root area and the best possible protection against rank 
growths of annual weeds. A hoe crop such as corn, beans or potatoes, 
if properly tended, leaves the area in the best possible condition for the 
small fruits. 

While the roots of the blackberry are perennial, the canes or branches 
are practically biennial. The shoots spring up and grow one season from 
the fruiting canes of the following season, after which they die and should 
be removed to make room for the new growth of the following year. The 
fruit is borne only on wood of last season's growth in the standard high 
bush blackberries and dewberries, but the Himalaya and ever-bearing 

29 



92 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



t>iK*s havp jHTciuiial canes and do not tluTcforo lend themselves to tliis 
ty|>e of renewal. 

Propagation. — 'I'lie ])lantation of llic standard l)lackl)erries can be 
incr(':us('d in citlicr or hotli of two ways, as follows: Tlic plants, in addition 
to tlirowinji; up stronj; shoots or canes from the crown, throw up suckers or 
root sprouts, which may be allowed to develop and later l)e lifted as inde- 
pendent plants, or lateral roots of strong plants may be dug durinR the 
autunm or early si)rinj>; and ])laced in sand nuich the same as are ordinary 
cuttinu;s, excei)t that blackberry root cuttings are cut to jiieces 2 to 3 
inches in lenj;th and should be entirely coveretl with sand or light s(jil to 
the depth of 2 to 3 inches. Nui-serymen propagate their supply of j)lants 
largely by the root-cutting method. In one season root cuttings of this 
s.)rt should jjroduce strong jjjants for transplanting. The dewberry and 
certain blackberry hyi)rids take root at the tips, the same as do black 
ntspberries, and new ])lants are secured l)y covering th.e tips of each jjlant 
v/ith earth toN/ards the en<l of the annual growth ]:ericd. 

Planting, Tillage and Fertilizers. — I^Iackb(>rries are for the most part 
rank-;;r,>wiiii; i)laiits and i('(|uire lilxTal distances in and between tl:e rows. 
A cj:n:n )n i)lanting j)lan is 4 feet in the row and 8 to 10 feet between the 
rows. In general, the best time for establishing a blackberry' plantation is 
in the spring and, as.grow'th normally starts early, the work of planting 
should !)(' d )ne as early as soil conditions will |--ermit. 

As the blackberry ])lants will not fully occujjy the land the first .season, 
it is customary to use some inter-crop, such as potatoes or beans, to ccn- 
tribute t )war(ls the cost of maintenance. 

The tillage of the blackberry ])lantation siiould be such as to hold 
weeds and suckers in check and maintain niaxiinuni mcisture an<l growth 
conditions, but cultivation should cease earlj' enough to induce the plants 
to riixjn their wwjd thoroughly l)efore winter. 

If the soil on which the blackb(>rry i^Iantation has been established 
api)oars to re(|uire fertilizer, exjjerience dictates that the best results will 
in general be sicuretl by the use of liberal applications of .stable manure. 

Pruning and Training. — The blackl crry plant normally pnihues long, 
slender, non-branching shoots. These, where the soil is strong, grow long 
and j)roduc(! less fruit than those which have been pruned. A ccmnion 
practice is to pinch the terminal bud of each shoot as .soi.n as it readies a 
height of 2.^ feet with moderate growing varieties, or 3 feet with n.bust 
growing .sorts. This induces the formation of lateral branches which 
increjuses the munber of buds from which fruit-l)earing twigs will develop 
the following spring. The ])runing causes the main stem of the sho«)t to 
thicken and stilTen and con.se(juently make it better able to carry a large 
crop of fruit without a trellis. The lateral branches which are induced to 
develoj) on the pinched-back shoots should be shortened to 10 or 12 inches 
Ixjfore growth starts in the spring. 

Harvesting. The fruit should be harvested as .soon as well colored. 



SMALL FRUITS 



on 



and only firm, sound beiTies should be sent to market. A few over-ripe 
fruits in a box will shorten the marketing period of the whole box, as will 
rough handling in picking cr transporting the fruit to market. Quart boxes 
are as large a receptacle as blackberries can be successfully marketed in, 
but the crates may run frcm 12 to 36 quarts capacity. 

THE CURRANT 
There are three general groups of currants cultivated to a greater or 
less degree in various parts of the United States. In general, however, the 
culture of the currant is confined to the northern half of the country, 




Currants Should Find a Place in Every Home G.'Uiden.i 

as none of the forms are able to withstand heat as well as they do cold. 
Of the three types represented by the common red, the Black and the 
Crandall, the Red is by far the most important from a commercial stand- 
point and is the form most generally cultivated. The other two are spar- 
ingly grown for special purposes. As currants are in little demand as fresh 
table fruits, but are almost universally used for the preparation of jellies, 
jams, preserves or for canning in mixture with sour cherries or red rasp- 
berries, they are restricted commercially. This should be borne in mind in 
planning a small fruit plantation. While the currant should be found in 
every home fruit plantation throughout the northern tier of states on 

' Courtesy of The Pennsylvania Farmer. 



91 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



account of its hardiness, and oar ly and pprsistoni fruit production, it would 
l)c an easy matter to carry tlic coiiiiucrcial jjroduction beyond i)ro(ital»Ie 
limits. 'I'lieii. too, the currant is a fruit that is relatively expensive to J)ick, 
ua the work must all he done hy hand. 

Soil Requirements. — The currant thrivc^s hest on a deep, moi.st, yet 
wcll-draine(| loam or sandy loam, hut will thrive and produce on a sreat 
variety of soils, j)rovide(l they are arable and neither too wet nor t<M) drj*. 

The soil should he well i)re- 
l)ared by deep j)lowinK and 
thorou^;h fining f<jr the re- 
ee|)tion of the youuR plants. 
In adilition, it is well to nWo 
the land a year of preparat<jr}' 
treatment with crops which 
will tend to j)ut it in good 
I)hysical condition, and at tl:e 
same time eliminate weeds, 
ell her through clean cultiu'e 
or by the use of a crop which 
is dense enough to smother the 
weed K'owth. Currants are 
usually set in rows G feet 
apart and the distance bet ween 
the j)lants in the rows varies 
from .'{ to ') feet. If it is de- 
sirable to maintain cultivation 
ill both dil-ections throughout 
the greater portion of the life 
of the i)lantation, the plants 
should be allowed either 4 or 
T) feet in the row. Strong one 
or two-year-old plants should 
be chosen and the ])lantingcan 
be <loiie either in the autuimi 
or spring, according to the pre- 
vailing practice of the locality. 
The usual care exerci.sed in 
pruning the roots and to])sof fruit trees at transplanting time should be car- 
ried out with the currant. The fruit-bearing hal>it of the plant should be 
carefully observed and the later ])runing carri«'d on in such a way as to pro- 
vide as nnich U-aring wiiod as the plant will carry and yet not overburden it 
or allow w<K)d of too great age to accumulate in the bush to the detriment of 
high production or (piality of the fruit. Wood more than three years of age 
hhouid !)(• removed. ;\ little fruit is iMirneon the base of shoots of last sea- 
Bon's growth, but the main crop is borne on wood two or three years of age. 




WjllTK rCUIlANTS. 



SMALL FRUITS 95 

Culture and Fertilization. — Clean culture so as to protect the plants 
froni weed coni})(!tition uiul for the purpose of conserving moisture should 
be the aim. Strong, vigorous plants are more profitable and are better 
able to resist the attacks of (!n(!ini(>s and diseases. Stable manure, bone 
meal or otlier higii grade fortihz(!rs sliould be used to maintain the plants in 
a high state of growth and vigor. 

Enemies and Diseases. — If the plants become infested with the currant 
woi'in, as th(; nui soils an; almost certain to be, the; plants should bo thor- 
ouglily s|)niycd witii a soluti(m of Paris greeu, 5 ounc(!s to 30 gallons of 
\vat(;r, or dusted with white hellebore. If mildew is troublesome, liordeaux 
mixture should be used. As a rule, however, currants are not as -seriously 
aff(!ct(!d by mildc.w as aix; the goos(;bcrri(!S. 

Harvesting the Fruit.- ('uirants should l)e carefully picked so as to 
maintain the little gi'apc-likc clusters of fruit intact. Berries torn or 
strii)ped from the stems do not keep or ship as well as those carefully 
handled. The most popular receptacle for shipping currants is the quart 
strawlKiiTy box, but (uinifuily })icked curi-ants will carry well in 4 or 10- 
pound climax baskets with scale l)(Kird covers. 

GOOSEBERRY 

The gooseberry of I'^urope was early brought to this country by the 
colonists, but, like the grap(!S whi(-h they brought, it was not suited to the 
now conditions. An accei)tal)l(! substitute was found in the wild gooseberry 
of the realm, and from those wild [)lants, or th(!ir seedlings, have developed 
tiie most valuable of the sorts adapted to eastern United States. The 
ICuroi^ean sorts liave proven better suited to the extreme northwest condi- 
tions in the UnitxHl Stat(!S and are there cultivated to a liinited extent. 
In general, howev(!r, the basis of the commercial gooseberry industry is 
the American varieties. 

The cultural range of the gooseberry coincides in general with that of 
the currant, but it is able to withstand a slightly higher temperature than 
the currant and its southern limit of cultivation extends somewhat farther 
than that of the cui'rant. 

Soil. — The gooseberry thrives well on a considerable diversity of soils, 
but rich, moist, well-drained loams or clays offer the most congenial condi- 
tions for the ])lant. Under a favora})le environment thc5 plants should 
continue in good condition long enough to produce seven to ten crops of 
fruit, aftei- which the i)lants will be well spent. 

Preparation of Land. — The area to be planted in gooseberries should 
receive at least one season of preparatory treatmcint if practical)le, before 
the plants are set. This should consist of a crop which is well tilled and 
ke[)t free of wcicds, or one which, by reason of its density and rank growth, 
will smother the weeds. 

Plants for Setting. — While the gooseberry can be propagated with a 
fair degree of succ<?ss from cuttings as well as by layering and mounding, 



ni; 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



it will, in ponoriil, l)o found best cither for the home fruit panleii or for the 
(•(tiniiicrci.-il pUmtatiou to jjurcliase strong one or two-year-old plants of 
the dcsinMl sort from a reliable nurseryman. 

Planting. — As a rule the plants should be set in check rows so as to 
jMMriiit of cultivation in both directions. Satisfactor> distances are (5 feet 
l)ct\vcen the rows and i to 5 or (i feet between the j)lants in the row. Plant- 
ing can i)e facilitated by opening a dead furntw along the line of tlie row 
and by marking the field in the opjusite direction so as to indicate the 
points in the row where the plants are to stand. 




Well-set Buancu of Gooseuekiues.' 



Cultivation. (looseberries form their root system luwv the surface 
of th(^ ground. Cultivation should conform to the habits of the plants 
and be shalloU- enough not to be injurious to them. The main purpo.sc 
of cultivation should be to conserve moisture, i)articularly early in the 
se;is(>ii while the fruit is forming and ripening. 

Fertilizers. Few tests have been made to determine the f(>ililizer 
requirem(!nts of the gooscl)erry. In general well-composted stable manurt^ 
will prove to l>e a satisfactory fertilizer. On exten.sive plantations where 
fertilizers are evidently refjuired it will 1)C l)est to inaugurate a simple 
t(!st to defermin*' the combination and amount Ixjst suited to the ncctls of 
the j)arli<ular plantation. 

* CourUvy of Tho Pcnnsylvooia Farmor. 



SMALL FRUITS 97 

Pruning. — The natural habit of the plant is to form a bush. Pruning 
should therefore be directed to checking the growth of rampant shoots at 
the proper time and to removing old branches which have served their 
purpose as bearing wood. 

Enemies and Diseases. — The gooseberry suffers as severely from the 
currant worm as the currant itself and is only a slightly less desirable host 
plant. Paris green or hellebore should be applied the same as for currants. 

The great drawback to the successful cultivation of the European 
gooseberry in eastern United States is, as has been pointed out, its suscep- 
tibility to mildew. This disease is so severe and so difficult to combat that 
resistant sorts are generally grown, although the mildew can be held in 
check by thorough applications of Bordeaux mixture or ammoniacal 
carbonate of copper. 

Harvesting. — Gooseberries, because of their habit of growth, can be 
successfully harvested only by hand-picking. Those intended for pie 
making, which is one of the chief uses of the fruit, are picked before they 
have colored and ripened. They are, in other words, picked green, as it 
is the green fruit that is most prized for pie purposes. The usual receptacle 
for gooseberries is the one-quart splint box. 

The ripe fruit is often seen in the American market. The preferences 
of the market should be determined in advance and the fruit harvested in 
the condition demanded, whether it be green or ripe. 

THE CRANBERRY 

The cranberry is one of the native fruits which has contributed an 
important product as well as a large share to the aggregate return from 
small fruits. Its restricted region of cultivation and the peculiar environ- 
ment required by it place it outside the general list of garden small fruits, 
and in an exclusive class. The fact that it thrives only in swampy areas in 
high latitudes and elevations exclude it from this discussion. The general 
requirements of the crop are discussed in Farmers' Bulletin 176, of the 
United States Department of Agriculture. 

REFERENCES 
"The Strawberry in North America." Fletcher. 
" Bush Fruits." Card. 
"The Grape Culturist." Fuller. 

Wisconsin Expt. .Station Bulletin 248. "Strawberry Culture in Wisconsin." 
Canadian Dept. of Agi-iculture Bulletins: 

210. "Strawberry and Red Raspberry." 

222. "Currants and Gooseberries." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

643. "Blackberry Culture." 

664. "Strawberry Growing in the South." 



CHAPTER 9 

Grapes and grape Culture in the United States 

By Georgk C\ IIl.s.mann 

Pomologist in Charge of ViticuUural Itxvestigations, United States 

Department of Ayri culture 

The grape has always been and continues to be man's liest standby 
in fruits. It is one of the most important and most extensively prowii 
fruits in the country. 

Since the year 1900, tiie viticultural industry of tiiis country has more 
than doubled itself, now showing as a year's conunercial result in round 
numbers, shipments of 15,000 cars of table grajjes, 50,000 eases of canned 




A Typical Vimfera Vallky Vineyakd in California 

grapes, 250,000,000 pounds of raLsins, 7,000,000 gallons of brandy, 
50,000,000 gallons of wine and unfermented juice, etc. The vineyard 
acreage exceeds 5()(),()00 acres, the viticultural industry representing, in 
conservative figures, an investment of S300,000,(KM) and giving employ- 
ment to 150,000 persons. 

There are three distinct viticultural regions in the United States 
which .segregate themselves by the grape species grown in them for com- 
mercial j)urpo.ses. These are: (1) The vinifera region in which the 
vinifera varieties grown for all the various purposes, is located almost 
entirely west of the Kocky Mountains and .so much of it in California that 
it might almost be said to be a California industr>. At least seventy-five 
per cent of the entire grape output of the Tnited States is from fruit 
of the vinifera varieties. Nearly one hundred per cent of the raisin and 
grape brandies and about eighty per cent of nil other grape products pro- 
duced in this coimtry come from California. 

(2) The American Native grape regions in which improved varieties 



GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 99 

of American Euvitis are grown for table grape, wine and unfermented 
grape juice purposes. This is scattered over the entire United States 
east of the Rockies and west of the Alleghany Mountains, but carried 
on extensively in the States from the Hudson River west and north of the 
Ohio River and that border on the Great Lakes and in the more centrally 
located States of the Mississippi Valley. The great bulk of American 
champagnes and dry wines and unfermented juices come from this region, 

(3) The Muscadine region, in which improved varieties of Rotunde- 
folia and Munsoniana are grown for commercial purposes. This region 
is found in the South Atlantic and Gulf States and along the lower Mis- 
sissippi Valley, extending from Maryland, south to Texas on the west, 
thence north along the Mississippi River to Southeast Missouri and 
Tennessee. 

There are more native grape species in this country than in all the 
other countries of the world combined, and America in her native grapes 
has not only given to the world new fruits, but by judicious use of such 
species will make it possible to successfully grow varieties of some of them 
in all parts of the United States. 

Soil. — Soil, location and site will differ greatly with the object in 
view. Some varieties of grapes may be grown on almost any soil. Usually 
those lands are selected that can be prepared and planted with the least 
labor, that are the easiest to cultivate and which produce the largest 
crops. Quality and quantity, however, in most cases do not go hand 
in hand. The best soils for Vinifera and American Euvitis is a gently 
sloping, well-drained, calcareous loam, of sufficient depth, with porous 
subsoil; gravel or small stones in a so'l are not a detriment. Some prefer 
a sandy soil with a gravelly substratum. The best soils for Muscadine 
grapes are the well-drained, siliceous soils found bordering the coast and 
river banks throughout the Atlantic tidewater section, known as sandy 
ridges, as hammock and trucking soils. It should be open and well drained, 
but not necessarily very deep, provided the subsoil is not too heavy, as 
Muscadines have a shallow spreading root system. 

Whether it be intended to grow Vinifera, American Euvitis or Mus- 
cadines, the place should have a good water supply, be of easy access to 
market, and free from late spring frosts. The cellar, pasteurizing or 
packing house should be centrally located on the place, preferably so that 
the grapes can be hauled down grade, or at least on a level. 

Preparation of the Soil. — The soil should be well prepared, cleared of 
large stones, stumps and other obstructions. When a thin hardpan occurs 
closer than 33^2 feet from the surface, it should be broken by blasting. 
Any wet spots should be carefully drained. If it be a virgin soil, raising 
a crop of grain on it the season previous to planting helps materially to 
put it in good shape. The soil should not only be thoroughly and deeply 
plowed, but subsoiled as well, then thoroughly harrowed and the clods 
crushed with a drag or roller. 



100 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Fertilizers. — On partially exhausted or poor soil, such manures and 
fertilizers should l)e apphed as will sui)i)ly the deficient ingredients. A 
liberal ai)|)li('ation of l)arnyard manure is usually advisable. If the soil 
lacks in fruit-proiiucinR qualities, potash is nee<led; if more plant-growth 
is desired, nitrogenous fertilizers should he api)lie(l. 

Choice of Varieties to Plant. — As to varieties of graix's to plant, each 
locality largely di'terniines for itself, ^rape };r()\vinK heiuK perha|)s more 
dependent on selection of varieties with reference to soil, climate, location 
and other conditions than any other fruit. The writer has often seen such 



m 




^S5' - ■ 


SHiiO^HlL''"'. 


^S;^? 


^^^^.r li^lH 



I'lcKi.NCi A.Nu 1Iaili.nl; ^\'l^l;; (Juai'ks 



radically difTerent results with the same variety — planted in vineyards 
only a short distance apart — that it hardly .seemed possible that they were 
the same variety. It should first be determined for what purp().se it is 
desired to ^row grapes and select varieties suited for such j)urpose and 
even then best results can only be exjx'cted where .s()il, climate .'ind other 
conditions best suited for the variety and purpose are chosen. Usually 
it will be well to select such varieties as have jiroven valuable for such 
puri)oses in the immediate vicinity. Should a grower embark in an 
entirely ifT-w district where grape growing li;is not been tried, he will 
have an op])ort unity for disj)laying good judgment and j)erhaps growing, 
from se<'d, new varieties adapted to the locality, thus Ixvoming a i)ath- 
finder for those who follow in his le.'ul. 

'i'lio Vinifera varieties commerci.'illy grown for the difTerent puri>oses 
in this coimtry are Alex.-mdria, Alicante, liouschel, lilack HMml>urg, 
Burger, ( "abernet, Sauvignon, Carignaiie Chju^sclas de Kont.'iinebleau, 
Cinsaut, Dodrelabi, Emperor, Flame Tokay, Green Ilungarien, CJrenache, 



GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 



101 



Listan, Malaga, Mission, Mondcuse, Mourastcll, Mus(;adcllc du Bordelais, 
Olivette blanche. Olivette noir, Pedro Ximines, Petit i-^yrah, Pinot de 
Chardonnay, Purple Damascus, Saint Macaire, Sauvignon Vert, Simillon, 
Sultana, Sultaiiina, Sylvaner, Traminer, Valdepcnas, Velt-liner, Vermen- 
tino and Zinfandel. As vinifera varieties are not phylloxera resistant 
and no way has been found to eradicate it from vineyards, it is conceded 
the only way to successfully combat the phylloxera in all soils which can- 
not be cheaply and sufficiently flooded to kill it, is to establish vinifera 
vineyards on phylloxera resistant stocks. 

Of American Euvitis varieties. At present nine-tenths of the plant- 
ing are of Concord. The next most imi)ortant variety is the Delaware. 




A Typical Vinifeka IIillsidk Vinkyakd in California 



Other varieties, grown more or less extensively, are Agawam, Barry, 
Brighton, Brilliant, Campbell, Carman, Catawba, (yhampenel, Clevener, 
Clinton, Cynthiana, Diamond, Diana, Dutchess, Elvira, Eumcilan, Goethe, 
Her})em()nt, Herbert, Isabella, Ives, J(!ff(!rson, Lenoir, Lindley, Moores, 
Missouri Riesling, Montefiore, Niagara, Noah, Nortons, Pierce, Salem, 
Wilder, Winchell, Wooden and Wyoming. 

Of Muscadine varieties. The Scuppcrnong is today more extensively 
grown than any other variety. The otluir catalogued varieties being 
J*]dcn, Flowers, James, Memory, Mish and Thomas. 

Propagation. — In ordinary practice, grape vines are propagated from 
seed, from cuttings, by layering or by grafting. Seedlings should only be 
used when it is desired to originate new varieties. 

Cuttings should always be made from young, well-matured wood 
and preferably from medium-sized, short-jointed wood. To make cuttings, 
cut close below the lower bud, making the cut somewhat slanting, and 
leave about an inch of wood above the upper bud. If a small piece of the 
old wood or a whorl of buds can be left at the butt end of the cutting, so 



102 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



much the better. The lonj^li of the cuttings may \ary from eight to 
twenty inches, depending on the cHmatie and other conditions of the 
locality in which they are to be planted. Keep dormant until they are 
planted. Plant in sjjring after the ground htis become warm enough. 

Layers.- Ml varieties of vines may be j)roj)agated by hiyers. Mus- 
cadines are nearly always propagated in this manner, but with other 
sjx^cies layering is only resorted to with varieties which do not root easily 
from cuttings. In layering, choose canes of last sea.son's growth, pref- 
(T:il)ly those that start near the base of the vine. Canes may be layered 
cither in fall or in spring. 

Grafting. — Bench nursery and vineyard grafting are resorted to in 




American Euvitis Pruned and Trelused 



general vineyard practice. Bench grafting is done on benches or tables, 
usually indoors during the winter. Cuttings of resistant varieties that 
root easily or good young jilants are usually bench grafted. The grafting 
of vines growing in the nursery is called nursery grafting. This is usually 
resorted to with varieties resistant to phylloxera, that do not grow readily 
from cuttings. They are grafted with vinifera or non-resistant varieties 
.•md the resultant vines planted in the vineyard. In vineyartl grafting, the 
vines growing where they are to remain are grafted. 

Some of the important practical advantages of grafting are: (1) 
Changing worthless vines into valuable ones. (2) Insuring non-resistant 
varieties by grafting them on resistant stocks. (3) Obtaining quickly 
plenty of wood for gr.ifting purposes, by grafting new or scarce varieties 
on strong vines. (4) Producing resistant vineyards, by grafting valuable 
resistant direct producers on roots of growing vines to make roots of 
their own. 

Planting, Plowing and Cultivating. — In California, where most of 



GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 



103 



the Vinifera regions of the United States are located, the practice has been 
to plant the vines seven feet apart each way, no trellis, but simply stakes 
being used as supports. This enabled the growers to plow and cultivate 
lengthwise and crosswise. Now the tendency is to plant farther apart, 
some planting 8x8, others 6 x 10, others 9x9, others 8 x 10 and 8 x 12 
feet apart. Since the Sultana and Sultanina grapes for seedless raisins and 
some of the choicer varieties of table grapes are extensively grown for 
shipping purposes, better results with such being had by growing them 
on trellis, trellis are coming into general use with them. The vineyards 
are all plowed twice each year. In the first plowing, the soil is usually 
thrown away from the vines and in the second plowing it is thrown up 
to them again. The vineyards being cultivated frequently early in the 
season, the cultivation being abandoned after the spring rains are over. 




Typical Rotundifolia Arbors 



The American Euvitis varieties grown in the States east of the Rocky 
Mountains are usually planted in rows 8 feet apart, with the vines 8, 
10, even 12 feet and more apart, in the rows. A plain trellis of posts, 
24 to 30 feet apart, is used, the end posts being firmly braced, to which 
sometimes only two, but generally three strands of No. 10 or 12 wire are 
fastened, the first, second and third wires being 24, 40 and 56 inches, 
respectively, from the ground. Of late years many use a modification 
of the Munson trellis. In this, pieces of 2x4 inch joist or their 
equivalent 20 inches long are firmly spiked to the side or on top, when 
posts are sawed off at the right height (43^ to 5 feet above the ground) 
for the purpose. The two outer wires are stretched on the ends of the 
cross joist and the lower wire is either stapled against or run through 
the posts at the desired distance below (about six inches). The vine- 
yards are plowed twice and cultivated frequently. Too late cultivation, 
however, is apt to keep the vines growing too late in the season, caus- 
ing unnecessary growth, which does not ripen. 

In growing Muscadines for commercial purposes the system of train- 



101 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



iiiK almost oxrlusivcly ft)ll<)WO(l is an overhead arbor. When i)hirite<l in 
KufHcient number to be ealletl a vineyard, the vines arc usually set 10 x 20, 
15 X 15, or 20x20 feet aj)art. In the overhead system, a durable poet, 
reachiiif; seven feet above the ground, is planted at each vine. Rows of 
well-braced j)osts are set at the ends of the rows on all four sides of the 
vineyard. From the tops of the.se posts, governor wires are run along the 
tops of the inside i)osts in both directions, two feet ai)art. Parallel with 
the governor wires other wires are run across the.'^e, so ;us to regularly cover 
the entire area. Some growers construct the arl)ors entirely of wo<m1, 
using slats instead of wires. In training the vines to such arbors, a single 
trunk .should be allowed to grow from the ground alongside the i)ost and 




VlMKKUA ViNK.S PltlNKI) TO CaNKS I.V CaLIFOKNIA 



when it ha.s reached the toj), it is pinched in or cut ofT, to cause it to throw 
out shoots which are allowed to grow and spread ov(t the arbor. After 
this, the general i)ractice is to do no more pruning under the supposition 
that the vines naturally prune thcm.selves. It is aKso a mooted question 
with the growers whether Mu.seadines should or should not be cultivated. 
I'AjH'riments by the I'nited Stat<'s Department of Agriculture in recent 
years not only go to show th;it other methods should be employed and 
that the vines should be regularly cultivated, but far better fruiting results 
and better fruit will be had by different training and thorough pruning 
methods. 

Pruning. — Details of the many methods practiced in pruning grapes 
cannot be discu.ssed in this jjaper. In California, two principal methods 
are i)ractieed, commonly called cane and spur pruning. Of these two 
methods there are all kinds of combinations and modifications. The same 



GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 



105 



holds true with the methods employed east of the Rocky Mountains with 
American Euvitis, it being in the training methods and not the pruning 
that they differ. All the systems have the same underlying principle, 
namely, the grape usually bears its fruit on shoots of the previous year's 
growth. Therefore, the pruning should be so as to renew the wood at 
a given point from year to j'ear, through this regulating its production 
and keeping the plants thoroughly shaped and under constant control. 

With a thorough knowledge of the nature of the vine, it is easy to 
prune correctly. However, the nature of no fruit-bearing plant is so little 
understood by horticulturists. Many horticulturists easily learn to prune 
other fruit-bearing plants, but fail to master the vine and the same state- 
ment is equally true of grafting it. 

Diseases and Insects. — Of serious insect enemies of the grape east 




ViNiFERA Vines Pruned to Spurs in California 



of the Rocky Mountains should be mentioned the Grape root-worm, 
Grape vine flea-beetle, Grape berry-moth, Grape curculio, all of which 
can be combated with arsenical sprays. 

Against the rose chafer, arsenical sprays, clean culture of land and 
hand extermination at times become necessary. 

Against the Grape leaf-hoppers, clean culture of land, turning sheep 
into the vineyard immediately after the vintage to pasture on grape 
leaves and other rubbish and when the hoppers are nymphs, spraying 
with whale oil soap and nicotine, are among the most effective remedies. 

Of grape diseases especially destructive east of the Rocky Mountains 
are black rot, downy mildew, powdery mildew and anthracnose. All of 
these are controlled by systematic spraying with Bordeaux mixture. 

In California, some seasons, considerable damage is done by the 
Grape leaf-hopper and powdery mildew. The so-called California vine 
disease, which has in the past wiped out thousands of acres of California 
vineyards, is now seldom heard of. 



1M SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

The prapo phylloxera has been and continues us the most serious 
menace to vinifera vineyards. Against tiiis the vineyards are completely 
insured. l>y estahlisliing them on resistant stocks. 

Picking Grapes. — Clrapes for all purposes, except those converted into 
raisins ami dried p;rapcs, are i)icked in boxes or trays and taken either to 
the winery, syruj) juice or canning; j)lantH or j)ackinK house. 

For wine, syrup and unferniented juice purposes, the vintage Ix'^ina 
when the grajies have about reached the ri])ening stage and continues 
until all are harvested and those picked last are overrij)c and beginning 
to shrivel. The higiier the sugar cont(^nt of the grapes, tlu; richer the 
unfermented juice and the finer the quality of the wines made from them. 

Talkie grapes for shipping purposes and grajies for canning and other 
culinary jiurposos are picked at the stage of rij)eness, which the purposes 
they are used for demand; in each instance, however, earlier than for wine, 
SjTup and juice puri)oses. 

In the packhig houses, table grapes for shii)j)ing purposes are care- 
fully picked over, all decayed and inferior berries being carefully removed. 
In the American Native grape region, they arc then i)acked, shipjxid and 
sold in grape baskets. 

In California, there arc two distinct lines in tlie table grape l>usiness, 
namely, grapes that are packed, shipped and sold in crates and sold as 
generally are those from the American Native graj^e regions, without 
being stored and as soon as the shipments reach their destination. 

The other line of California table grajx\s are the late rij)ening storage 
grapes, which are packed with specially j)repared retl wood sawdust 
into either drums or small barrels, holding from .30 to 50 pounds of gra|x?s. 
These may be shipped and sold directly, or after being picked, are some- 
times placed in cold st(jrage in California l)efore shipment in refrigerate<i 
cars, or shii)j)ed in such cars and jjlaced in eastern storage houses on 
their arrival, to be sold at the most opportune time. ThLs line of packed 
grapes already cuts into the shipments from foreign countries, reaching 
this country as so-calle<l Malaga grajx's packed in cork dust. It is only 
a matter of relatively short time when all such Malaga grai)es will be 
grown in and supi)lied by California. 

Almost all the raisins and drietl grapes are produced in California, 
in the raisin belt of which the climatic conditions are ideal for such j)ur- 
pos(!. The summers are usually rainless and the nights so free from «lew 
or moisture that a i)iece of tissue j)aj)er. after lying out all ni^ht, is i-risp 
and stiff the next morning without a particle of moisture showing. There 
are some sliowers in October. Frequently it rains enough in NovemlHjr 
to cause considerable damage to partly dried raisins or grapes. 

In California, picking raisin grapes connnences the middle of August, 
the sea.son often lasting into November. It takes from thri'c \o four 
pounds of grapes to make one pound of raisins or dried grapes. The time 
necessary for drying and curing a tray of raisins is about three weeks, 



1 



GRAPES AND GRAPE CULTURE 



107 



depending on the weather, the earhest picked grapes drying in ten days 
and the later ones often taking four weeks or more. The method of 
drying is very simple. The bunches are cut from the vines and placed on 
shallow trays, 2 feet wide and 3 feet long and 1 inch high, on which the 
grapes are allowed to sun dry, being turned from time to time by simply 
placing an empty tray upside down on the full one and then turning both 




Picking and Drying Raisin Grapes in California 

over and taking off the top tray. Some dip and scald the grapes, to 
cleanse the fruit, to hasten its drying and to give the fruit a lighter color. 
The layer and seeded raisins are mostly made from the Alexandria 
grape. The seedless raisins from the Sultana and Sultanina. The seed- 
ing, grading, packing and shipping of raisins have become separate 
branches of the industry. 



REFERENCES 
13, S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

Year-Book article, "Grape, Raisin and Wine Production in the United States." 
Year-Book article, "Some Uses of the Grape Vine and its Fruit." 
Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 172, "Grape Investigations in the Vinifera 
Regions of the United States." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletins: 

284. "Insect and Disease Enemies of the Grape East of the Rocky Moun- 
tains." 
471. "Grape Propagation, Pruning and Training." 
644. "Manufacture and Use of Unfermented Grape Juice." 
709. "The Muscadine Grapes." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

209. "Testing Grape Varieties in the Vinifera Regions of the United States." 
349. "The Raisin Industry." 

"Testing Grape Varieties in the Middle Atlantic States of the United 
States." 



CHAPTER 10 

The Pome Fruits 

By John P. Stewaht, Ph.D. 
Professor of Experimenlal Pomoloyi/, The Pennsylvania State College 

These fruits, which include the apple, pear and quince as the principal 
meinhors, constitute tlie most important group of fruits in temjK'rate 
cHmates. In tlie United States, as indicated in the thirteenth census, their 
combined value during the year preceding this census was $91,659,335, or 
nearly two-thirds of the total value of all orchard fruits. The latter total 
Wiis §140,807, 000. Among the pome fruits, the api)le is by far the most 
imjxjrtant. Its value in .\merica in the above-named year was $83,231,492, 
or more than 90.8 per cent of the total for the group. The pear comes 
second in value with a total production of $7,910,600, or 8.63 per cent of 
the total for the group, while the (piince showed a value of only $517,243, 
or but little more than one-half of one per cent of the group total. 

THE APPLE 

Origin. — All the true apples have descended from a wild form in 
lOuropr known as /^//ri/.s mains. Most of the crab-apples have come from 
the wild Pijrxs baccala of Siberia, which is commonly known as the Siberian 
crab. The Yellow and Red Siberian are jirobably as close to the original 
tyjx? as any varieties now grown. Most of the so-calletl crabs now in culti- 
vation are hybrids, and are known botanically as Pyrtis prunifoli'a. The 
Hyslop, Transcendent, Florence, Sweet Russet and Whitney are of this i\]n\ 
They are suj)i)ose(l to be hybrids between the true crabs and true ai)i)les. 
(See Hudd and Hansen, IlorllcnUnral Manual, \'ol. 1, pp. 161-<)2.) 

The other source of crabs is the native American form, known as 
Pyrus coronaria, and especially the large western type which has been 
further distinguished by the name of Pyrns io( nsis. The fruit of the latter 
oft^-n att.-iitis a diameter of two and a half inches or over, and keeps easily 
until the following sununer. It is much like t he (luince in quality, however, 
and is suitable only for culinary uses. The i)rincipal varieties from this 
source are the Soulard, Kentucky Mammoth, Mercer and Howard. They 
are of chief value to the northwest section of the Mississippi \'alley and 
northward. At pre.s<'nt the munber of ajiple varieties is very large. In 
America alone between 1804 and 1904 over 72(M) distinct varietal names of 
apples were published, besid<'s 383 named varieties of crabs. It is needless 
to say that the great majority are worthless. 

Cultural Range. — In eastern America the apple is grown commercially 

108 



THE POME FRUITS 



109 



from the plateaus of Georgia and Alabama on the south to Quebec and Nova 
Scotia on the north and east. On the Pacific Slope it succeeds well from 
the south-central portion of California to British Columbia. Between 
these regions it is grown more or less between parallels 33 and 46 degrees 
north latitude, except where the moisture is insufficient. With proper 
selection of varieties and care, good home orchards or moderate-sized 
commercial plantings can be grown successfully over practically all this 
region. The range of the crabs extends farther north. 

Propagation. — Apples are propagated by root or whip grafting in 




Well Located Apple Orchard.^ 



winter on whole or piece roots, by crown grafting in the spring or by 
budding in late summer or early autumn. There is little or no difference 
between these methods so far as the growth of the resulting trees in the 
orchard is concerned. 

The seeds to produce the roots used as stocks come largely from France, 
though some are also produced in Vermont. The former come from the 
so-called French crab, which is nothing but the wild native apple or Pyrus 
malus of France. The seedlings from them are produced chiefly in the 
soil of the Kansas River Valley. 

In the central northwest these stocks are not sufficiently hardy, and 

'Courtesy of The Maemillan Company, N. Y. From " How to Choose a Farm," by Hunt. 



110 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

seedlings of the crab hybrids or of the pure Pynis baccata are niuch preferred 
as the root stocks for tliose sections. Budding or crown-grafting is best 
when tliesc stocks are used. 

Dwarf ajii)le trees are formed by grafting or budding on French Para- 
dise stock, and semi-dwarfs by working on doucin stock. They are much 
used in luirope, but thus far liave found Httle favor in America. 

Location and Soil for the Orchard. — Many orchards are permanently 
handicai)petl by unsuitable locations, and many of their defects might 
easily have l)een avoided by proper foresight and care. The chief character- 
istics of tiie suitable location are good topograi)hy, proper soil, a convenient 
water sujijily and ready access to market or good shipping points if the 
orchard is to be commercial, A good topograpli)' is one that is moderately 
roundeil or sloping and is enough higher than its immediate surroundings 
to give good drainage of cold air and water. Too much slope, however, 
is always objectional)le, and a grade of two or three per cent is usually 
sufficient, especially if some sharper depression is near. The direction of 
the slope is of little or no importance, except possibly near the northern 
or soutliern limits of culture, in which cases the southern or northern slopes, 
respectively, are generally best. 

The suitability of the soil seems to depend largely upon the character 
of the subsoil, as good orchards occur on all classes of top soils, from dense 
clays to light sands. A good subsoil is comparatively open and porous 
for about one to three feet below the surface, and then becomes comjiact 
enough to hold the moisture fairly well, but not so well as to give the trees 
"wet feet." For the first six or eight inches, a loamy soil with a moderate 
admixture of sand and gravel is usually very good. The so-called ironstone 
soils, or those derived from many of tlie red shales or sandstones, are often 
excellent. The presence of old and productive trees under similar condi- 
tions in the neighborhood is also a valuable indication. 

Not all these conditions are needed, however. Many good iiome 
orchards have been made with some of the conditions less favorable, and 
their advantages are suflicient to warrant some risk in securing them. 

Varieties. — The j)roj)er selection of varieties for the location involved 
is extremely imjwrtant. Fortunately, much assistance can now Iw secured 
from the pomologists, horticulturists and horticultural societies of the 
various states, and also from the publications of the V. S. D(^paiiment of 
Agriculture, such as Hulletin 1")! of the Hun^ui of Plant Industry. Per- 
sonal preferences and local experience should also be considered, whenever 
availai)Ie in reliable form, and the following general advice should l>e 
u.seful. 

For the home orchard or local market, a nnich wider range an«l greater 
number of varieties are desirable and generally available than for the com- 
mercial orchard. Among the early varieties, named in the order of rii>en- 
ing, the Yellow Transparent, Oldenburg and Wealthy are among the l>est, 
and they thrive ])ractically across the continent. They aic chiefly valuable 



THE POME FRUITS 111 

for culinary use, and are all early bearers. For dessert use, the Early 
Harvest, Benoni, Maiden Blush, Gravenstein and Jefferis cover about the 
same season and are almost as widely adapted, at least for home orchards. 

For the later varieties, more attention should be given to the section in 
which they are to be grown. In the general belt from New England to 
Ontario and Michigan, the Mcintosh, Hubbardston, Northern Spy, 
Tompkins King, Baldwin, Rhode Island Greening and Roxbury are the lead- 
ing sorts, although many others are also grown. This is known as the 
Baldwin belt. The varieties in it and those later are named approximately 
in order of maturity. 

In the next area south, extending roughly from New Jersey and Vir- 
ginia to Kansas and Oklahoma, the leaders are Grimes, Jonathan, Rome 
Beauty, Stayman Winesap, York Imperial, Ben Davis or Gano, Black-twig 
or Paragon, and Winesap. It is known as the Winesap belt. The first two 
or three varieties used in it are also frequently valuable in the Baldwin belt, 
and vice versa. The Red Astrachan, Primate, Summer Ramljo, Fall 
Pippin, Smokehouse and Delicious also do well in many parts of both of 
these regions. 

Still farther south, from North Carolina to Texas, the White Juneating, 
Red June, Horse, Kinnard, Buckingham, Terry, Buncombe and Shockley 
are the principal sorts. In the Colorado-Utah section, the leading varieties 
are much the same as those in the Winesap belt, with the Summer Pear- 
main, White Pearmain and Yellow Bellefleur in addition. 

In the central northwest, or the general district including Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, the Dakotas and their immediate surroundings, only the 
harcUest varieties will succeed. For this district the first three early varie- 
ties named above are among the best. Others available are Tetofski, 
Borovinka, Charlamoff, Alexander, Hibernal, Gideon, Peerless, Okabena, 
Plumb Cider, Northwestern, Newell and Patten. This is rather a formi- 
dable list, both in names and quality, but in the latter respect the Wealthy, 
Peerless and Patten are best. 

For the favorable mountain valleys of western Montana, Idaho, 
British Columbia, Washington, Oregon and Nevada, the following varieties 
are prominent in one or more sections: Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Ortley, 
Mcintosh, Grimes, Jonathan, Banana, Esopus, Wagener, Rome Beauty, 
Stayman Winesap, Delicious, Winesap and Yellow Newtown. 

In California and northward along the coast, the more valuable sorts 
are the Red Astrachan, Red June, Gravenstein, Fall Pippin, Grimes, 
Jonathan, Esopus, Tompkins King, White and Blue Pearmains, Wagener, 
Yellow Bellefleur, Missouri Pippin, Gano, Yellow Newtown and Winesap. 

These lists, supplemented with state and local inquiry to fit the immedi- 
ate places concerned, should enable one to make satisfactory plantings 
almost anywhere in the apple-growing region of North America. 

Purchase and Handling of Nursery Stock. — After deciding upon the 
varieties, the best way to get the trees is by direct order from responsible 



112 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

nurseries. It is iinniaterial where the nursery is located, provided the 
trees it furnishes arc true to name, thoroughly heahhy, entirely dormant, 
fully matured before dijminp;. anil free from all evidence of faulty storage 
or imj^rojier handling of any kind. The wood should not show any conspicu- 
ous blackening at the heart, and the roots should show entire freedom from 
woolly aphis, crown-gall, hairy root or borers. 

One-year-old trees of good medium size are usually lx?st, and in no 
case should they be older than two years from the bud or graft. One-year 
trees usually cost le.ss, are more easily shipped and trans])lanted and their 
heads can l3e ]iroperly formed, which is not always the case with older trees. 

It is well to order early, although the trees may be held at the nursery 
subject to shipment at planting time. Fall planting is often advisable 
where the winters are not too severe; otherwise, i)lanting should Ijc done 
in the spring as soon as the soil is fit. When received the trees should be 
examined and "heeled in" if jiracticable, with the dirt packed closely alx)ut 
the roots and the to|)s sloping toward the south or southwest to reduce the 
danger of sun-scald. Ik'fore ])lanting, the roots should i)e shoi-tened i)ack 
to about six or eight inches anil tho.se broken or brui-setl should l>e removed 
with a smooth cut above the point of injury. 

Laying Out the Orchard. — The orchard may be laid out either on the 
square or the iicxagonal plan. The latter gives al)out loj percent more 
trees to the acre at the same distance apart, or loj i)er cent more space for 
each tree at the same number per acre. The former, however, is rather 
better for inter-crojjping, sprajing, etc., and in general is rather more 
simple to care for. 

A good planting distance is 40 by 40 feet for the permanent trees, with 
a semi-permanent or filler set in the center of the square. In the case of 
the smaller-growing varieties, the central trees may often remain indefi- 
nitely, without disturbing the general jilan of the orchard. Where inter- 
cropping is <l(>sirc(l, tjic ])cnnanents ma>' be set at 82 by 48 or therea!)outs, 
and then have the .semi-j)ermanents j)laced in the centei'S of the long sides, 
with very satisfactory results. The latter plan allows two more trees to 
the acre than the square at 40 by 40, or a total of 50 trees, including both 
fillers and permanents. 

Th(^ innnber of trees allowed ]ier acre for any distance in the square 
or rectangular arrangement may be readily found by determining the num- 
ber of square feet in the square or rectangle formed by the nearest four 
trees, and then using this number to divide 48. '^(iO, the mnnber of square 
feet in an acre. To find the numi)er needed in the hexagonal arrangement, 
find the numi)er allowed i)v the square plan at the sjxjcificd distance and 
then incre:ust^ this number by 15.47 per cent. 

The square or rectangular arrangement can be laid out readily by 
plowing straight, deep furrows for the rows and then drawing a chain or 
other drag across them at the distances reipiiri'd for the tnvs. The hex- 
agonal plan is best laid out by means of a couple of light wires or chains, with 



THE POME FRUITS 



113 




one end of each fastened to a single 25-inch ring and with a similar ring 
attached to the free end of each. These chains or wires must be exactly 
equal in length, and they should just reach over stakes set at the distance 
desired for the trees. 

Planting the Trees. — The avoidance of all unnecessary root-exposure 
and thorough firming of the soil about the roots are the principal secrets of 
success in tree planting. The soil on the immediate surface, however, 
should be left rather loose. If the trees or soil are inclined to be dry, the 
roots may well be soaked in water for several 
hours before planting, but water is seldom 
or never needed in the holes themselves. 
Set the trees from one to three inches deeper 
than they stood in the nursery. 

Little or no fertilization is needed at 
planting as a rule. A good mulch of strawy 
stable manure, however, will often help 
greatly. It or any other mulch should be 
accompanied by proper protection against 
mice, and a screen of galvanized wire with 
two meshes to the inch and about eighteen 
inches square will probably prove most satis- 
factory for this in the long run. 

Forming the Heads. — If one-year 
"whips" are used, the only pruning needed 
at planting time is to cut them off at the 
height of twenty to thirty inches. As soon 
as possible thereafter, four or five branches 
should be selected to form the general frame- 
work. The lowest of these limbs should be about 25 to 30 inches above 
the ground, as the original height of this limb is the permanent one. 

The other three or four frame-work limbs should be selected above, at 
intervals of six or eight inches, if possible, and "with an even distribution 
around the trunk so as to balance the top properly. This selection is 
probably best made in the early part of the season's growth, at which time 
the extra hmbs should be rubbed off. In the open-center type of tree, 
which is preferable for most varieties and localities, the central leader 
should be eliminated at this time and should be kept from reforming later. 

This is usually sufficient for the first season or two, unless some of the 
limbs get too long or begin greatly out-growing the others; in which case 
they should be headed back. 

At the beginning of the next season some of the frame-work limbs will 
need heading back to keep the tree in balance and avoid too rangy a growth. 
Each of the primary limbs should develop two good branches during the 
season following their selection, and all the others should be rubbed off 

» Courtesy of The Macraillan Company, N. Y. From "The Principles of Fruit Growing," by Bailey. 




A Properly Prtjned Young 
Apple Tree.i 



m 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



early. Those branches in turn should produce not more than two branches 
each for the pcncral frame-work, after which the tree-head may be con- 
siilercd formed. 

Later Pruning. — The above work should be completed usually by the 
middle of tiie tliird !<ea.<:on. After this the pruning; should bo reduced as 
much as jjossiblo until the troos come into boariiin. A little thinninR out 
in the dense places, removal of the crossinp; or plainly superfluous limbs, 
and an occasional heading back of the extra-vigorous braiiclies will be 




Apple Ouciiaud I'avoukd nv Tyck ok Soil.' 



sufficient and all that siiould be given if rajiid growth and early friiiting 
arc desired. 

The fruit spurs should always be saved and also the early blossoms, 
unless they Ixicome too numerous, in which case the fruit should be thinned. 
A little fertilizing of the right sort will avoid any possible injury from early 
fruiting and the early formation of the bearing habit is usually desirable. 

In all ])rMning, make the cuts close to the j)arent branch and avoid 
trinuning the limbs to jx^les. Also keej) all blighting twigs olT of the main 
limbs, so far as possible, to avoid the formation of the cankers in which the 
winter is passed by the blight organisms. 

Soil Management. -Where tillage is advi.sable, the most practical 

•Courtesy of The Macraillan Company. N. Y, From "How to Chooeo a Farm," by Hunt. 



THE POME FRUITS 



115 



method of orchard development is the use of tilled intercrops followed by a 
winter cover. Potatoes, corn, vegetables or buckwheat are usually satis- 
factory for the intercrops, and rye or rye and vetch are good for the winter 
cover. When buckwheat is used, the rye and vetch combination can be 
sown at the same time, as it does not grow much until the buckwheat is 
taken off. In the other cases, the winter cover should be sown after the 
intercrop is removed, which should not be later than the 15th or 20th of 
September for best results. 

Where the above plan is not desirable, the mulch system is generally 
best, especially for the home orchard. Strawy stable manure, at the rate 
of six or eight tons per acre annually, is probably the best mulch, unless the 
blight becomes too prevalent. Any other kind of vegetation is satisfactory, 
however, and it should be put on frequently and heavily enough to keep 




Tools for Use in Removing Roundheaded Apple-Tree Borer from Burrows. ^ 



down most of the grass or other growth above the principal root-feeding 
area. Its chief function is moisture conservation, though it naturally also 
adds some plant-food as it decays. Any such mulch should extend out 
at least as far as the tips of the branches, and a clear space of at least six 
to twelve inches should be maintained immediately around the trees. 

In many places all the mulch needed for the first eight or ten years can 
be grown between the trees by the use of alfalfa or other similar plants. 
When it begins to fail, manure or other outside resources should be drawn 
upon. 

Fertilization. — The necessity for fertilization is largely a local problem. 
In general, young trees respond to it much less than those in bearing. In 
either case one of the safest and best applications that can be made is 
stable manure. On mature trees it can be applied at the rate of 6 or 8 
tons annually per acre, while on young trees it may be reduced to as little 
as 50 or 100 pounds per tree. 

1 Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Farm Bulletin 675. 



110 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 




When the manure is not available, similar benefits may often l)e 
sec'un'(| with an appMcntion of alwuit oOO pouiids jht acre of a conuiiercial 
f(Ttih/.('r tarryinjj; aliout 5 or i)er cent of nitrogen, 8 i)er cent of phosphoric 
acid (P2O5), and 3 or 4 per cent of potash (K2O). This is enough for 
liearinp: trees and it should be sui)plenH'nted by a niuldi or tiUaRe to conserve 
the moisture. For younger trees, the ap])Hcatioii sliould be rcchiced api)rox- 

iinately in proportion to 
tlie reduction in area 
covered. 

The area of appHca- 
tion should be al)out the 
same as that described 
above for mulches, and 
the best time for the fer- 
tilizer is probably some- 
what after the fruit has 
set. The manure may 
well be applied any time 
(lurinp; late winter or 
early sjirinp;. In any 
orchard it is always best 
to leave a few typical 
trees unfertilized until 
the actual value of the 
fertilization is deter- 
mined. 

Protecting the 
Trees. — The chief ene- 
mies of young trees are 
mice, ral»l)its, l)orers and 
the San Jo.se scale. The 
screens described above 
are the surest protection 
against the fii-st two, 
though poi.soned syruj) or 
shot-guns may also Ix; 
useful. 
For the borers, a protective covering, such a,s the lime-sulphur concen- 
trate more or le.ss mixed with sediment or lime, is often very heli)ful if 
renewed fretjuently enough. It can be readily applied either with a brush 
or a coarse s])ray nozzle and the trunk should be thoroughly coated to a 
height of eight(M'n inches or more. It should be ke])t in good shajn* from 
about the middle of .luric to the middle of Sei)tember, after which the trees 
should be gone over carefully and any borers that may have entered in spite 
of the coating should be cut out or killed with a wire. 



-A -A 



s p tmt mft^r *'^^- 



A I'OWKK HrHAYEK AdAITKU to L.\K(iE TuKKS. 

A giisolinc engine gives uniformly high pre.s.sure. 



THE POME FRUITS 



117, 



The scale is readily handled by thorough spraying during the dormant 
season with lime-sulphur at a density of 1.03 as indicated by the specific 
gravity hydrometer, or a dilution of about one part of the best commercial 
concentrates to nine parts of water. 

Spraying During the Growing Season. — The materials needed are 
lime-sulphur, lead arsenate, and nicotine solution. The first is used at a 
density of about 1.008, 
which is obtained by dilut- 
ing good home-made con- 
centrates about 1 to 30 or 
the best commercial lime- 
sulphurs at about 1 to 38. 
The second material is 
used at the rate of 2 or 2| 
pounds of the paste, or 
half as much of the pow- 
der, in 50 gallons of spray. 
The third is used at the 
rate of about an ounce of 
the 40 per cent nicotine 
preparations to 5 gallons 
of spray, which gives a 
diluted strength of about 
.05 of one per cent of nico- 
tine. All these materials 
may be combined in a 
single application, or they 
may be applied separately 
as the case demands. 

With these materials, 
the principal pests are 
controlled as follows: 

1. If both scale and 
plant lice are present, de- 
fer the scale application 
mentioned above until the 
first green begins to appear 
in the buds, and add the 

nicotine solution above named for the aphids or plant lice, which are 
then just hatched. 

2. Spray with the sulphur and arsenate when the blossoms are just 
showing pink, or slightly before. This is for scab, canker worms or the bud- 
moth. Also valuable against aphids and red-bugs if the nicotine solution 
is added. 

3. Repeat No, 2 immediately after the petals fall, to fill the calyx cups. 

30 




A Good Cluster of Apples, but with Some 
Scab Showing. 

A little more thinning and spraying would have 
been useful here. 



lis 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



This is the most important single spray. It is to control the apple worm, 
scab, curculio and thi' later simtIcs of rcd-hwg if present. 

4. Repeat No. 3 in about two or three «ctA-.s. This i.s for the same 
enemies as in No. 3 and is also useful against the apple maggot if present. 

5, G and 7. In orchards infested by bitter-rot or apple-blotch, make 




Picking an'd Packing Apples.* 



three applications, preferably with Bordeaux mixture (3-3-50), at inter- 
vals of about three weeks, beginninR eight or nine weeks after petals fall. 
8. In the absence of .sprays 5, G and 7, and where the second brood of 
apple worms, late scab or late summer caterpillars is bad, repeat No. S 
about August 1st, or som(>what earli(>r in the southern sections. depiMiding 
upon the time of emergence of the (((dhng moth. With the third and fourth 

> Court«sy of Penn Sut« Fanner, Sut« Collrgr, Pa. 



THE POME FRUITS 119 

applications well made, this one is rarely needed, although much depends 
on the locality and season. 

This schedule of sprays is all that is needed in the worst infested 
orchards, and it is seldom that more than those numbered 1, 3 and 4 need 
be given. 

Thinning. — Whenever the crop on a tree is too large for normal matu- 
rity, it should be thinned. This should be done as soon as the June drop is 
largely over, or when the fruit has become about an inch in diameter. 
All defective fruit should be removed first and then the remainder thinned 
to a distance of at least four or five inches between fruits, unless they are 
on opposite sides of the limb and the limb as a whole is not well loaded. 
Grape shears or similar implements are sometimes used for this, but with a 
litte practice and by using the proper twist the work can probably be done 
faster without them and with as little damage to fruit spurs and fruit. 

Fruit Picking and Storage. — The highest color and best eating quality 
in apples are generally secured by letting them ripen on the tree as far as 
possible. This can be done with the early apples and especially with those 
to be used at home. Too much ripening, however, interferes seriously 
with long keeping, and hence with the later varieties the best time for pick- 
ing is when they are ''hard ripe," ^. e., when they have reached their full 
size and redness, but have not yet begun to soften nor to show the yellow 
colors, except possibly in occasional specimens. In many cases two or more 
pickings are desirable to permit the immature fruits to develop. 

Other ways of improving the keeping quality are to avoid bruises and 
broken skins and to transfer the fruit at once to cool conditions. Leaving 
the apples in piles in the sun is exceedingly hard on keeping quality. In 
storage the best temperatures range from about 30° to 35° F., though a 
range up to 40° or 45° F. usually does little or no damage. Well insulated 
cellars or storage rooms fitted with a good system of ventilation, which can 
be opened at night and closed in the daytime, are likely to be very serviceable 
except possibly in the southern third of the apple region. In that territory 
it may be necessary, to make use of commercial storage, at least tempo- 
rarily, in order to insure satisfactory keeping of the fruit. 

THE PEAR 

Origin. — Practically all the present varieties of pears have come 
directly from the wild Pyrus communis of Europe and Asia. This fruit 
has been grown probably as long as the apple, but it was not until the great 
work of Von Mons of Belgium, in the early part of the nineteenth century, 
that any important dessert varieties were produced. The better varieties 
are now among the most delicious of fruits. 

The other ancestor involved in a few of the commercial sorts is the 
Japanese or sand pear {Pyrus sinensis) of Asia. It is of no value in itself 
except for hardiness or ornamental use. Crosses between it and communis, 
however, have resulted in the hardy hybrids, of which the Kieffer, LeConte 



120 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



and Garbcr arc most important. Although low in quality, they arc usually 
vory produt'tive and arc much used ft)r canninK- A})OUt 2.'i()0 names of 
pear varieties have ajjpeared in American publications between 1804 and 
1907. (See Bulletin 120, Bureau of Plant Industry.) 

Propagation. — The jiear is propagated in the same ways as the apple, 
but till- stocks are dilTerent. In stocks, the ])ear has a very wide range of 

affinities. Those 




Peau Tuef. in Blossom. 

Note iinusually pproadinK form of this tree. This is desir- 
able, although difficult to secure in iiianj- varieties. 



chiedy us<'d arc the 
seedlings of the small 
Snow pear (Pyrus 
7} i ml is) of Europe. 
This stock results in 
trees of the normal 
size. 

Dwarf pear trees 
are i)roduced by bud- 
ding on to quince 
stocks. The latter 
are secured from the 
Angers quince by 
mound layering. 
Some varieties, and 
particularly the An- 
gouleme, arc much 
benefited by this pro- 
cess. Such varieties 
are often planted with 
the stock below the 
surface to reduce in- 
jury from the round- 
headed borer, which 
attacks the quince, 
but rarely the pears, 
and they are "double- 
ajianese (juiiice is not 



Some varieties do not unite well with the (luiiut 
worked" by first using one that does. The 
satisfactory as a stock for anj' variety. 

In the South, cuttings of the KiefTer pear arc u.'^ed to some extent, and 
in the more rigorous sections, tlu' mountain ash (Sorfms) and even the shad 
bush (AtiKhinrfiicr) have been u.^'d as stocks with fair success. 

Cultural Range. — The pear resists cold about as well as the apple. 
Its great susceptibility to fire blight {lincilhis aniylovorus), however, greatly 
restricts its i)r()fitalil(' growth. In general, it does best in the lialdwin and 
Wine.sap belts in the I'^ast, and in the general territory from Colorado west 
and northward to the Pacific Coast. 

Varieties. — The leading varieties in the eastern section, named 



THE POME FRUITS 



121 



approximately in order of ripening, are: Clapp Favorite, Bartlett, Seckel, 
Sheldon, Anjou, Angouleme, Kieffer, Lawrence and Winter Nelis. In the 
West, the same varieties are used, excepting the Kieffer, and with the addi- 
tion of Flemish, Comice and Easter Beurre. In the South the three hybrids 
mentioned above are about all that have shown any profit. Very few varie- 
ties will succeed on the rich soils of the Mississippi Valley, but the LaMotte, 
Seckel, Dwarf Angouleme and Kieffer are most likely to succeed. It is 
always best to use more than one variety and to mix them somewhat in the 
planting, in order to insure satisfactory pollination. Further advice can 




Good Specimens of Winter Nelis. 
The fruit, however, appears more nearly round here than it really is. 



be secured from local and state sources, and from Farmers' Bulletin 208 
of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Location, Soil and Culture. — Since blight is its worst enemy, the pear 
orchard should be located where the trees will not grow too rapidly. A 
fairly high and airy situation, with a well-drained and moderately fertile, 
clay or clay-loam soil, is therefore most desirable. For the same reason 
the amount of tillage and fertilization should be kept low or be eliminated 
entirely if the blighting becomes severe. The mulching method is often 
used with especial success on the pear, if not applied too heavily. 

Trees, Planting and Pruning. — These are largely'the same as described 
above for the apple. Pears, however, are planted closer. A distance of 



122 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

20 l)y 20 foot is about right for the staiKJard-sizod troos, and 12 l)y 12 feet 
for the dwarfs. In forming the toi)S, it is rustoniarj' to leave a central 
leader with most varieties of i)ears. Severe attacks of hliglit, liowevcr, 
are likely to Ix; more serious in such trees than in those with three or more 
leaders, as in the oi)en-centered tree. It is also im]x>rtant to keep all fruit 
sj)ui's and sapjjy sprouts off the main branches, and to avoid any large 
amount of i)runing at any one time. Si)ecial i)ronii)tncss is needed in 
pruning out and disinfecting blighted twigs whenever they apix^ar. 

Protection and Spraying. — The same general j>lans as stated for the 
ap])lcwill take care of tlieix'ur. The scab is csiK'cially bad on some varieties, 
e. g., Flemish, but it can be readily controlled l)y limc-sulj)hur or liordeaux 
mixture (4-4-50) a])i)lied just wlien the blossoms are showing pink. Most 
apple insects are less serious on the i)ear, but it has another important 
enemy in the pear psylla. 

This insect attacks tlie buds and young leaves, sucking out the sap 
and blackening and often killing them. It is a very tiny insect, and when 
magnified looks like a minute cicada. It can be controlled by thorough 
spraying early in the spring, with nicotine solution and soap, at the rate of 
an ounce of the former and three or four ounces of the latter to five gallons 
of water. The rough Ijark should bo scrai)ed away before making this 
application. Lime-sulphur, at winter strength, just as the buds are swell- 
ing, is also effective in killing the eggs. 

Picking the Fruit. — The i)ear is one of the few fniits that are improved 
by ripening olT the tree. Both the grittincss and softening at the core are 
much reduced by this jirocess. The "hard rij^e" stage described for the 
apple is therefore especially api)licable in i)icking the j^ear. After i)icking 
it should be stored at once in a cool place, free from drafts and jjreferably 
dark, to avoid wilting and bring out the full flavor of the fruit. 

THE QUINCE 

The quince has come down from the wild Cydotu'a tnilgarist cf Asia. 
It is still closer to the original ty])e than any other orchard fruit. It is 
practically inedible raw, but has been used for at least 2000 yeai-s in marma- 
lades and jellies. It is also used largely in i)reserves, canning and in flavor- 
ing other fruit i)roducts. It is especially adapted to liome phmting, as it 
is grown very little in n commercial way. 

Cultural Range and Varieties. — The quince is le.ss resistant to cold than 
the jM-ar and is al)out e(|ually suscejjtible to blight. Hence it is available 
in the less severe i)ortions of the jiear range. 

In general, the leading variety is the Orange. The Champion is 
probably next, \nth the I?ea, Missouri and Meech often useful. In the 
South the Chinese does best and in California the IVar is i)referred. 

Soil and Cultural Methods. — A heavy, retentive clay loam, with good 
drainage of bdlii air and surplus water, is a))parently best for the (|uince. 
Two-year-old trees arc probably best, and they arc set from twelve to fifteen 



THE POME FRUITS 123 

feet apart. The quince is very shallow rooted; hence all deep tillage must 
be avoided, and winter covers are always desirable. The general method of 
culture and fertilization suggested for the pear are also advisable for the 
quince. 

Pruning. — Quince blossoms and fruit are produced on the ends of 
twigs of the current season's growth. These twigs are developed largely 
from the terminal buds of spurs or branches, or from buds near the tips of 
the latter; hence too much cutting back may readily remove all the fruit- 
bearing wood of that season. The pruning of the quince, therefore, should 
be confined largely to the removal of dead or inferior wood, thinning out the 
dense places and heading back the extra vigorous shoots, to promote the 
development of fruit spurs and keep the trees in balance generally. Blight- 
ing twigs also need as prompt attention here as in the case of the pear. 

Enemies. — The worst insect enemies of the quince are the quince 
curculio and the round-headed apple-tree borer. The latter can be con- 
trolled as described for the apple, although more attention is likely to be 
needed. The former is the chief cause of the "wormy" and knotty fruits. 
It is very difficult to control, but the best methods are: (1) thorough 
spraying with lead arsenate, at the rate of one ounce of the paste to a 
gallon of spray, when the first injury appears and again a week later; and 
(2) picking and destruction of all infested fruit about a month before the 
normal picking time. 

The chief diseases are fire blight, leaf blight (Entomos'porium macula- 
turn) and rust {Gym7iosporangium germinale). The first is controlled as in 
the pear, the second by spraying as for apple scab and the third by removal 
of all red cedars, or at least all diseased specimens, for a distance of at least 
one-half mile of the quince trees. 

REFERENCES 

"Productive Orcharding." Sears. 

"Horticultural Manual," 2 vols. Budd & Hansen. 

"The Pruning Book." Bailey. 

"Systematic Pomology." Waugh. 

Pennsylvania Agi-ic. Expt. Station Bulletins 115, 121, 128 and 141. 

New York (Geneva) Expt. Station Bulletin 406. " Dwarf Apples." 

Canadian Dept. of Agi-i culture Bulletins: 

176. " Bacterial Blight of Apple, Pear and Quince Trees." 

194. " Apple Orcharding in Ontario." 
Farmers' Bulletin, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 401. "Protection of Orchards from 
Spring Frosts by Means of Fires." 



CHAPTER 11 

Stone Fruits 

By F. C. Sea us 

Professor of Pomology, Massachusetts Agricultural College 

Sites and Soils. — As a cK^uss tho stono fruits do ])ost on relatively high 
lands, i)rincii)ally on account of the etrects of elevation on temperature. 
When peaches are injured by cold it is usually either by extremely low 
temperature in the winter or by frosts during the blossoming i)eriod. 
Witli cherries and plums the damage almost always comes at blossoming 
time. As all of these fruits bloom early, they are particularly liable to 
frost injury and it becomes necessary to guard against it. 

Both these types of injury can be lessened and often largely prevented 
by jjlacing the orchanls on sites which are higher than the surrounding 
lands, thus allowing the cold air to drain away onto the lower levels. Occa- 
sionally the lower sites bring their crops through in better shape than the 
high ones. An instance of this kind was the winter of 1913-14 when 
extremely low temperatures were accompanied by very high winds. This 
combination did mucli more damage to orchards on high lands than to 
those on low lands. But on the average higher sites are much to be 
preferred. 

As to the direction of the slope, two points are worth considering. A 
northerly slojie retards the blossoming and so helps to escaj)e spring 
injury. But, as just suggested, it may incretisc the danger from severe 
winter temperatures. Consequently, if one is in a section where the 
former type of injury is most likely to occur a northerly slope is to be 
preferred. But if the damage is generally done by low winter tempera- 
tures, a southerly slope is best. 

For soils the stone fruits are not very exacting. Peaches prefer rela- 
tively light soils, but will do well in almost any soil up to a moderately 
heavy clay loam. Plums and cherries, especially the former, do best on 
medium to fairly heavy soils, heavy sandy loams to medium clay loams. 
CJood soil drainage is absolutely essential. 

Nursery Stock. — .Medium grades of nursery stock of the stone fruits, 
from four to six feet tall, are to be preferred. This is especially important 
in peaches, for these are always set at one year old and where one wants 
to head them at all low and start a new top, the very heavy trees do not 
give JUS good results. Plums and cherries may ho set at either one or two 
years from the bud. Where the soil is fertile and has \ieon well prepared, 
one-year-old trees arc to be preferred, particularly if one wants to head 

124 



STONE FRUITS 125 

them low. But if the soil conditions are not good, then two-year trees are 
to be preferred, as the one-year trees will not usually form as good heads 
under poor soil conditions. Locally grown trees are always to be preferred 
if one can get good stock. They come fresher, the freight is less and it is 
easier to adjust differences with the nurseryman. On the other hand, there 
is probably nothing in the idea that either northern grown or southern 
grown stock is to be preferred. Southern stock will do just as well in the 
North, or northern grown in the South, if it can be landed at the orchard 
in good condition. 

Varieties. — The variety question is always important and always 
difficult to decide. It can generally be decided best by referring to local 
authorities, but a few general considerations are worth keeping in mind. 




A Typical Peach-Orchakd Site, Allegheny Mountain District, Morgan 

County, W. Va.^ 
Good air drainage and proper exposure are important. 

With peaches the important considerations are color of flesh, color of 
skin, quality, juiciness, whether they are clingstone or free, hardiness of 
fruit buds and season of ripening. There is a very strong prejudice (it is 
nothing more) in favor of yellow-fleshed peaches, especially for canning. 
It is best to respect this prejudice if possible, but many varieties which are 
leaders in all other respects have white flesh. It is often possible to educate 
consumers locally on this matter of color and convince them that in many 
cases the white varieties are to be preferred, but in the general market one 
is almost certain to be most successful with yellow sorts. Quality and 
juiciness are always desirable, though from the commercial standpoint 
the latter can be overdone, as very juicy peaches do not ship as well. 
Clingstones are never as popular, but some of the best commercial sorts 
among the early varieties are clings or semi-clings. Hardiness in the fruit 

* From Farmers' Bulletin 431, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



126 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



1)11(1 is all-iinportaiit in soctions subject to low winter temperatures, and 
there is a very marked dilTerence in tins resjK'et umonK dilTerent varieties. 
(Jreensboro, for example, will come throu^ii witii a full crop when the fruit 
buds of Elberta will be larj^ely killed and those of Crawford entirely so. 
As a class, the so-called Chinese Cling group, which includes such varieties 
as Greensboro, Carman, lielle of Oeort^ia and Klberta, ha.s much more 
hardy fruit buds than the Persian group, which includes such varieties as 

]"]arly and Late Crawford 
and Old Mixon. As to 
sea.son of ripening, it is 
well, of course, to have 
somewhat of a succes- 
sion, particularly for local 
trade, but the very early 
and still more the late 
sorts are likely to l)e 
morei)rofitable than mid- 
season varieties. 

With plums one should 
consider the (juahty, the 
uses (whether for jelly, 
canning, preserving or 
eating in a fresh condi- 
tion), the size and the 
color. 

With cherries the all- 
important question is 
whether to grow the 
sweet varieties or the so- 
called sour cherries. As 
a cla8s, the sour cherries 
are much more generally 
successful. In addition, 
there are the (juestions of 
size, (juality .and ct>lor. 

With any of these 
fruits the numlxr of 
variotios set must depend very largely on whether they are to go to 
local or distant markets. If the latter, then it is vciy important 
to restrict the number of varieties sullicicntly to allow of shipping in 
car lots. 

While realizing, as already suggested, that the variety quc-^tion 
is very strongly local, thr following lists may Iw heli>ful, including 
as they do those varieties which are most generally successful and 
popular: 




Tyi'IcaIi Sweet Cheiuues. 



STONE FRUITS 



127 





Peaches 




Early Crawford 

Greensboro 

Carman 


Champion 
Hieley 

Plums 


Belle of Georgia 
Elberta 


Burbank 

Abundance 

Lombard 


Wild Goose 
Reine Claude 
Red June 

Cherries 
(Sour) 


Bradshaw 
Shropshire Damson 


Early Richmond 


Montmorency 


English Morello 


Black Tartarian 
Yellow Spanish 
Napoleon 


(Sweet) 
Windsor 
Bing 


Schmidt's Bigarreau 
Gov. Wood 



Planting. — Spring planting will be found most generally successful, 
particularly in those sections subject to variable winter climates. On the 
other hand, where soil conditions are ideal (soil well prepared and well 
drained both on the surface and beneath), planting in the autumn will 
give excellent results. A serious difficulty, of course, is getting the nursery 
stock in time to plant in the autumn and still have it well matured before 
it is dug by the nurseryman. 

Peach trees are set all the way from 13 to 20 feet apart. A good aver- 
age distance is 18 feet. The type of land and the variet}^ will determine 
the best distance. 

Plums can, on the average, be set closer than peaches, because they 
are more upright growing trees, but such sprawling growing varieties as 
Burbank will need fully as much room as any peach. 

Sour cherries average about the same as plums, and sweet cherries 
somewhat larger. 

In pruning the trees at setting there are two general methods used: 
In the case of one-year trees, they are simply cut back to the desired 
height, which varies with different growers from 6 to 30 inches, on the 
average perhaps 24 inches. With two-year trees, the head being already 
established, it is necessary to cut back the main branches rather severely. 
Generally from one-third to two-thirds of the last year's wood is removed. 

Soil Management. — Stone fruits rarely succeed well in sod. Peaches 
practically never do, and cherries very seldom. Plums can be grown in 
sod, but are usually much better under cultivation. There is much less 
chance for discussion as to the relative merits of sod and cultivation in 
the stone fruits than with apples and pears. An additional reason for 
cultivating peaches is the fact that borers are much more troublesome 
where grass and weeds are left about the trees. 

If the orchard is to be cultivated, the season's campaign would be to 
plow it as early in the spring as possible, and for this work nothing is more 



128 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



satisfactory than one of the "orchard Rang" plows (usually a nanR of three 
small plows). After plowing the soil is "fitted" in Rood shai)e with the 
cUsk aiul other liarrows, and then is kept in good condition with some t>7)e 
of cultivator up to about July 1st. The essential points of such a cultivator 
are that it shall cover enough ground to do the work cheajily, that it shall 
leave the soil in Rood condition and that it shall work well under the trees 
without necessitating; that the team Ret close to them. This latter ])oint 
is particularly important with stone fruits, since they are almost universally 
headed very low. About July 1st the cover croji is sown in the orchard 
and the season's work on the soil is finished. The date of sowiuR this crop 
varies Rreatly with tlilTerent Rrowers and under tliJTerent conditions. Where 




Block ok Young Peach Trees with Strawberries as an Inter-crop. 



trees arc carr\inR a larRc crop of fruit and the soil and season are dry, 
cultivation may i)ro(itably be kept up considerably later in order to con- 
starve the moisture, but it must always Ik* borne in mind that moisture is 
saved in this way one season at the expense of the next .season, because the 
loURer the sowiiiR of th«> cover crop is delayed the less Rrowtli it will make, 
and conseijuently the less humus it will add to the soil the followiiiR year. 
The chief functions of this cover crop are to prevent washing (and this is 
especially important in peach orchards, since they are usually on high and 
rolling lands), to check the growth of th(» trees in autumn and to add hunnis 
to the soil. If the cover crop is a legume, a large part of the recjuired nitro- 
gen may be .secured. One of the lK\st crops for this j)urix).'<c is barley. 
Another is dwarf rape. Either may be combined with one of the clovcra 



STONE FRUITS 



120 



to advantage. Vetch is an ideal crop where the seed can be secured at a 
reasonable price. Some growers raise their own seed, sowing winter vetch 
with rye and cutting and threshing the combination the following season. 
One bushel of rye and a peck of winter vetch makes a good combination 
for this purpose. In this connection, it is very desirable to get all the humus 
possible into the soil before the orchard is set, since it is frequently difficult 
to get as much growth as desired from the cover crop and consequently 
the supply of humus 
in the soil soon runs 
low. 

Fertilizers. — The 
fertilizer needs of stone 
fruits, as with other 
fruits, have not been 
worked out as fully as 
could be desired, yet it 
has been pretty well 
shown that reasonably 
liberal fertilizing is 
profitable. Practically 
all commercial peach 
growers fertilize their 
orchards and most of 
them very liberally. 
Plums and cherries are 
probably fertilized less 
freely on the average 
than peaches, largely 
perhaps because size 
with them is less im- 
portant. There must 
be enough nitrogen 
added in some form so 
that, together Avith 
what can be gained 
through cover crops, 

the trees will be induced to make a good medium, well-ripened yearly 
growth. Peach trees ought to make from one to two feet on the leaders 
and plums about the same. Sweet cherries will stand perhaps a little more 
and sour cherries less. The foliage ought also to be kept in good vigorous 
condition. To accomplish this will require varying amounts of fertilizer 
and the orchard man must use his judgment as to what is required. 

The following are formulas which are used by good growers, but 
even in different parts of the same orchard, and certainly in different 

I Courtesy of Dept. of Experimental Pomology, Pennsylvania Experiment Station, 




Peach Tree with Well-Formed Framework, Heavily 
Cut Back for Renewal Purposes. "^ 



130 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



ypars, the ai)i)licationR may need to be varied. 
I>er acre: 
1. 



The formulas given are 



-Usually 100-200 pounds 



2. 



2oO pounds hiRh-RTHdo sulphate of potash. 

4(N) r>(N) pounds basic slag. 

Nit rati- of .soda as needed to produce proper growth- 

jHT acre. 
KM) pounds nitrate of soda. 
100 pounds dried blood. 
350 pounds slag. 

10(>-2(K) pounds high-grade sulphate of potash. 
3. 25- 50 pounds dried Mood. 

40- SO i)ounds tankage. 

90-1 SO pounds bono meal. 
130-200 pounds l)asie slag. 

80-100 pounds high-grade sulphate of potash. 

Thi.s i.s a more complicated formula than the others, hut is used by a very 

succe.s.sful grower. 

Pruning. — The most intelligent pruning of any 
kind of fruit tree requires that one should understand 
thoroughly the manner in which the fruit is borne by 
that tree. This is perhaps more emjihatically true of 
the peach than of any other fruit, but is certainly a .safe 
general principle. We will therefore consider tliis ix)int 
first. 

The jieach l)ears only on last season's wood, the 
l)U(ls occinring normally in dusters of three on such 
shoots, the center one jjcing a leaf bud and the two out- 
side ones fruit buds. Shoots of medium size give the 
best results. If, for any reason, a ])oa('h tree makes a 
very rank growth it will be found tiiat fewer fruit buds 
are produced on such wood and they are a])t to be less 
hardy. In seasons when a large j)art of the fruit buds 
are killed by severe cold it almost always liappens that 
the few buds which come through .safely are on the 
smaller branches. The i)runing of the peach, therefore, 
ought, fir.st of all, to aim at keeping up a supply of new 
wootl, and, except when one is trying to grow a new 
top on the tree, it should never be so severe as to give 
a very rank growth. 

The following will Ix* found a fairly satisfactory out- 
line for the pruning of a bearing i)each tree: 

1. Do not allow the jinming of the tree as a whole 
to be .severe enough to start a very strong wood growtli. 

2. Take out altogether any very high and v<My 
strong leaders. This is nece.*<.sary l)ecau.se the fruiting 

Peach Twic, Snow- wood tends to get ver>' high if the.se leaders are allowed 

iNo Aim.^N.iKMKNT ^,, remain. Less rank leaders mav be headed back less 
or Leak a.nu liujti- . • 

BOM Bui>s. beveriy or allowed to remam entuely. 



STONE FRUITS 



131 



3. Take out all dead or injured branches. It is sometimes a question 
whether one can afford time to take out all of the many small dead branches 
which are always to be found in the center of the tree, but as many of 
them as possible should be removed. 

4. Thin the balance of the top as needed, taking out preferably no 
branches larger than one's thumb. The amount of this pruning is going 
to depend, of course, on how much has been taken out in other ways and 
on the type of tree. The amount of pruning should be varied somewhat 
according to the outlook for a crop that season. If the fruit buds are all 
killed it is a good opportunity to cut back rather severely and lower the 
tree down if necessary. 

If part of the buds are 
killed, it may be best to 
prune very lightly in 
order to save as much 
of the crop as possible. 
On the other hand, if 
there are plenty of live 
fruit buds the pruning 
may be fairly severe, as 
this helps to thin out 
the fruit. 

Plums and cherries 
bear essentially alike, 
the fruit being produced 
on short lateral spurs 
and small twigs, and 
also to a considerable 
extent (especially with 
the sour cherries and 
the Japanese plums) on 
the last year's wood as 
with peaches. These 

spurs bear for several years, perhaps three to six, and then die away and 
need to be replaced by new wood. The pruning of such trees therefore 
should be moderate and should aim to keep the trees fairly open to 
encourage new growth. The following outline may serve as a guide for 
most trees of these two fruits: 

1. They require relatively little pruning. 

2. Cut back leaders if too high. This is especially important with 
cherries, since the picking of high trees is more expensive than with any 
other fruit. 

3. Cut out dead, broken and diseased branches. This is particularly 
important with plums which are often badly attacked by the black knot. 

» From Farmers' Bulletin 632, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 




A Properly Pruned Peach Tree.^ 



l.-.J 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



(^ ffH 



4. Take out crossing branches. 

5. Thin the balance of the top slightly. 

The following outline may be taken as reasonably accurate for prun- 
ing young trees of stone fruits — say trees two to four years old: 

1. Ivxaniine critically the head of the tree. It should have three to 
six main branches and no shaii) forLs. 

2. Shorten leaders that are running too high. Only ver>' high leaders 
that throw the tree out of shape, or such as have made an cxcei)tionally 
long growth the i)ast season, need to be cut back. 

3. C\it out bad (sharp) forks on all main l)ranches. 

4. Save all small shoots. 

5. Take out only very large cros-sing 
branches. 

6. Prune strong-growing trees less and 
weak-growing ones more. 

In pruning these fruits, especially the 

peach, a large i)air of hand shears will be 

found most satisfactory. A ten-inch jiair 

of the French wheel-sjiring shears will lie 

found equal to almost any emergency, and 

much of the work can be done more rapidly 

with shears than with a saw. The o])erator 

will need a saw, however, f(jr the heavier 

work and one of the following dimensions 

Avill be found very satisfactory: 

Length 20 inches 

Width at butt 2,' " 

Width at point j " 

.Seven and one-half teeth per inch. 




Pruning Tools. 



A — Waters' Tree-Pruner. 
B — PruriiiiK Shears. 
C — T\v<)-<-dn<'d Pruning Saw. 
I) — {^aUfoniia Pruning Saw. 
E — Pruning Knife. 



Such saws may have to be made to 
order. Any hardware mamifacturer will 
make them and they should always be of 
the best steel. 

Probably the ideal time to ])rune these 
fruits is about a month or six weeks before 
they start into growth. Biit where one has 
mucii i)runing to do, it is often necessary to greatly extend the time. It is 
largely a que.stion of the economical use of farm labor. There are usually 
few export pruncrs on the farm in comparison to the pruning to Ih^ tlonc 
and it becomes nece.ssary to keep these men at work over a relatively 
long i>i'rii>d. 

Diseases, Insects and Spraying. — Since the matter of disejises 
and insects has been treated fully in the general chapters on these 
subjects, it is necessary here only to give a very brief sununarj- of the 
subject. 



STONE FRUITS 133 



Among fungous diseases, the following are deserving of special 
consideration : 

1. The brown rot which attacks all of the stone fruits and is to be 
dreaded far more than anything else. It attacks not only the fruit but 
the twigs as well, spreading to the latter from the former, and hence dis- 
eased fruits should be removed from the tree as soon as possible. It can 
be controlled largely by spraying. 

2. Peach leaf curl, often serious but thorough spraying before the 
buds swell will practically eradicate it. 

3. Black knot of plums and cherries. Often very serious but can 
be controlled by spraying and by cutting out and destroying the knots. 

4. Peach scab. Often a troublesome disease, sometimes seriously 
so, but thorough spraying will usually control it, even in the worst seasons. 

Among insects three are worth mentioning: 

1. The plum curculio, which attacks both plums and peaches and is 
often a very serious menace, not only for its own attacks, but because it 
helps the spread of brown rot. 

2. The peach borer, an ever-present pest where peaches are grown at 
all extensively. Digging out is the most commonly accepted method of 
combating. 

3. The cherry aphis, often a serious pest and, like all aphids, difficult 
of control. 

There are a nmnber of other pests in both classes that are sometimes 
troublesome, occasionally very seriously so, but the above mentioned are 
the real standbys. 

Thinning the Fruit. — A prerequisite to harvesting a satisfactory crop 
is thinning the fruit. Nothing is simpler to do and few things connected 
wuth fruit growing are more important. Cherries are not thinned, but 
peaches and plums ought always to be. The best time to do this is after 
the ''June drop" has occurred, that is, after all the fruits which wall fall 
"naturally" have fallen. The fruits will then be about the size of the 
first joint of one's thumb, and a safe rule, and one easily followed by those 
doing the thinning, is to thin so that no two fruits touch. In practice 
this works out so as to bring the fruits a good distance apart and the oper- 
ator does not spend any time in wondering whether he ought to take off 
another fruit in order to bring them the required distance apart. 

Thinning will help the crop wonderfully in several ways. Probably 
the most important is that it gets rid of all the small, defective fruits, 
leaving a crop which it is an inspiration to pick and a pleasure to sell. 
The work of sorting is reduced to a minimum because there are really veiy 
few poor fruits left. Moreover, one gets almost as much fruit in the aggre- 
gate, sometimes quite as much. The trees, too, will bear more regularly 
because they are relieved of the burden of maturing these extra fruits. 
And lastly it reduces greatly the loss from brown rot, because the rot can 
spread from one fruit to another where they are touching, and moreover 

31 



1^4 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



an outbreak of it frequently starts wliere the moisture is lieid between the 
fruits at their jioints of contaet. It requires a good deal of "hustle" to 
make a good "thinner/' but boys who have tliat requisite will thin fully 
as well as, and more cheaply then, men. 

Go over the trees systematically. Take off all defective fruits whether 
they touch or not. Don't be afraid of the cost. It will l)e paid back 
many times over in the better fruit and is really a small item. Peach trees 
that will bear four or five baskets can be thinned for not over three or 
four cents each. The writer has had this done in his own orchard. 

Harvesting and Marketing.— ^To Ix'gin with, one must decide on the 
projM'r (Icgicc of iij)('n<ss. This is going to vary greatly with varieties 
and di.stance to market. Let the fruit get as nearly ripe as possible and 
.«!till stand up well in transit, for stone fruits are never so good as when 



^B^' UN^^^I 


^^^^Bk> 








Ntti^m 






wm^^ 


Jmsm 




m^jUlg 



Picking Peaches.^ 



allowed to ripen fully on the trees. Peaciies ought to be picked for local 
markets as soon as they show signs of ripening on the shady side, that is 
when they begin to look edible. A little j)ractice will soon teach one. 
Plums can be somewhat soft before |>icking, while cherries are ])i(ked just 
before they are fully ripe. Color and taste (of a few samples) shouhl he 
the guide. All the above are for local markets. The more di.stant the 
market the greener the fruit must be when picked. 

Ilavcconvenientreceptaclesinfowhichtopick. For jilums and {M^aches 
the ordinary round Delaware |)each ba.sket holding sixteen tpiarls is good. 
A strap with a hook at each end can be thrown over the shoulders and 
hooked into the rim of the basket so that it will hang just in front of the 
picker, leaving both hands free to pick. Cherries are often picked in the 
same way or may be picked directly into quart baskets if they are to be 
sold that wav. 



' Court«sy of Dcpartmont of ExporimrntAl Pomolog>', Pcnnsylvanim Experirornt Sution. 



STONE FRUITS 135 



Do not allow the pickers to bruise the fruit in handling. This is a 
very important rule and one difficult to enforce. In handling the larger 
fruits like peaches and large plums, take the fruit in the hollow of the hand 
and grip it firmly with the entire hand. Never take it between the thumb 
and finger. With plums and cherries always have the stem attached. 
This means that the stem must be gripped by the finger and thumb. 

Never pick these fruits when wet. This rule has very few exceptions. 
Fruit which is picked while wet looks badly and keeps worse. Brown rot 
is almost certain to develop in it. 

So much for picking. Next for packing. Have a convenient packing 
room. If possible have the fruit brought in on one side, packed in the 
middle and delivered for marketing on the other side. There is then less 
confusion. Have a table for the packers and seats if they want them. 
They can work just as fast sitting down. See that the sorting is done 
rigidly. Nothing discourages customers like finding a few poor number 
two peaches in the middle of a basket of firsts. Be extremely careful that 
the best fruits do not gravitate to the top of the baskets. It is probably 
legitimate to turn the blush side up on the face, but this is as far as it is 
wise (not to mention honest) to go in facing. 

Plums and peaches are sold for the wholesale market in the round 
Delaware basket of various sizes, and, for a more select trade, in the six- 
basket Georgia carrier or crate. The latter will not pay for cheaper grades 
on account of the greater cost of packing. To a limited extent these fruits 
are also sold in the Climax baskets. For strictly local trade both these 
fruits may be sold in the little baskets of the Delaware type with wire 
bails, holding two and five quarts. 

Cherries are most commonly sold in strawberry baskets and crates, 
also in Climax baskets and for the large and finer sorts in boxes or cartons. 

The desirability of roadside marketing where there is any great travel 
past the orchard should not be overlooked. The stone fruits lend them- 
selves especially well to this type of traffic and one who has never tried 
it will be agreeably surprised at the amount of fruit which can be turned 
into cash in this way. Moreover, it offers an outlet for the over-ripe, soft 
grades which would not stand transit to market. 



REFERENCES 

"Plums and Plum Culture." Waugh. 

Virginia Expt. Station Bulletin (Extension) 1. "Peaching Growing in Virginia." 
New Jersey Expt. Station Bulletin 284. "Packing and Shipping Peaches." 
Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 

201. "Peach Growing, Peach Diseases." 

226. "Plum Culture in Ontario." 

230. "Cherry Growing." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

426. "Canning Peaches on the Farm." 

440. "Spraying Peaches for Brown Rot, Scab and Curcuho." 

631, 632, 634. "Growing Peaches." 



CHAPTER 12 

Citrus Fruits and Their Cultivation 

By Herbert J. Webber, Ph.D. 
Dean of Graduate School of Tropical Agriculture, University of California 

History. — The various species of the genus Citrus are natives of 
linVm and llie Malay Archipehigo. The date of the iinj)ortation of citrus 
fruit.s to Ainrrica is not known. They were ai)parently introduced into 
Brazil and the West In(hes at a very early date, probal)ly some time in the 
latter part of the sixteenth century. They were brought by the Simniards 
to Floritia at a coniparativi'ly early date and were ai)i)arently sjjread by the 
Indians over the state. 

The conimereial cultivation of oranges in Florida began in the early 
part of the nineteenth century; while in California the conunereial planting 
cannot be considered to have started much prior to 1880. The first car- 
load of oranges was shipjx'd from California to St. Louis by William Wolf- 
skill in 1S77. 

Citrus Species and Varieties. — The genus Citrus belongs to the family 
Ruiacea;, which is represented in the United States by the prickly ash 
Xanthox Ilium), the liojMree (Ptclca) and the like. The rejiresentatives 
of the family are mainly natives of tropical and sulMropical countries. 
Following are the princii)al sj)ecies and varieties cultivated in tke Unitetl 
States. 

The Sweet Orange (Citrus sinen.^i.s). — This is the sjMJcies most 
generally cultivated throughout the world, and is the fruit commonly 
referred to jus the orange. It has given rise to numerous cultivated varie- 
ties and e.vhibits a very wide range of variation in form, si/e, flavor, season 
of maturity and the like. Certain varieties have luul marked influence in 
building up the industry in dilTerent .sections. 

This is particularly true of the Wa.shington Navel in California. This 
variety originated in Brazil about 1S20 near Bahia. It gradually l)Ocame 
known for its good quality and .seedles.sne.ss. and in 1S70 twelve budded trees 
were imported into the I'nited States by William Saunders of the I'nited 
States Department of Agriculture. Other trees were propagated from 
these; and sent to various of the onuige-gnnving states for trial. The 
majority of the.sc trials were apparently failures or attracted no notice. 
Two trees, however, were .sent to Mrs. Luther C. Tibl)et, at Hiverside, Cal., 
in 1873, and were carefully cared for by her imtil they came into liearing. 
The stock of this variety in the world lias been mainly taken from dcsccud- 

13G 



CITRUS FRUITS 



ants of the Tibbet trees. It has been sent from California to Australia and 
South Africa, where it has become an important variety. 

The next most generally grown orange in California is the Valencia, 
a late-maturing variety that can be held on the trees until July and August 
in interior sections of the state and until October or November in cool 
sections near the coast. This variety is also grown extensively in Florida 
as a late-maturing 



>-, 




Ever-bearing Orange Tree. 



sort, but requires 
to be shipped con- 
siderably earlier 
than in California. 

The orange 
plantings in Cali- 
fornia are made 
up 1 a r g e 1 y o f 
AY a s h i n g t o n 
Navels and Valen- 
cias with a few 
trees here a n d 
there of other 
varieties, such as 
M e d i terranean 
Sweet,St. Michael, 
Blood, J o p p a , 
Nugget, Ruby, 
etc. 

In Florida a much larger number of varieties are grown, no two standing 
out as prominently as do the Navel and Valencia in California. The 
following are the leading sorts in their class in Florida, though other sorts 
are almost as extensively grown: Early varieties — Parson BroM^n, Boone, 
Early Oblong; mid-season varieties — Pineapple, Homosassa, Jaffa, 
Majorca, St. Michael, Ruby, Maltese; late varieties — Valencia, Bessie 
and Lue Gim Gong. 

The Sour Orange {Citrus aurantium) . — The sour orange is grown in 
the United States mainly as a root-stock on which other varieties are 
budded. A few varieties are cultivated to a limited extent for their fruits. 
Certain varieties are grown in some countries for manufacturing purposes. 

The Lemon {Citrus limonia). — The lemon is grown extensively in 
California and to some extent in Florida. The commercial production in 
Florida has in recent years almost disappeared, primarily due to the damage 
caused by the disease known as scab. The principal varieties of the lemon 
are the Eureka, the Lisbon and the Villafranca. Of these, the Eureka, a 
nearly seedless variety that originated in California, is much the most 
extensively planted. 

The Pomelo or Grapefruit {Citrus decumana or Citrus grandis). — 



138 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

This fruit is urown oxtonsivoly in Florida and the West Indies and to some 
extent, in California. Whil(> the pomelo has been known for many years, 
it was first ^r^J^vii on an extensive eonimercial scale in Florida, first being 
int roduced as a commercial fruit alK)ut lS8o. The varieties most conmionly 
grown are selected Florida scedlinjis, tliouf^h one or two varieties, as the 
Pernaml)Uco and the Royal, are inii)ortations resjx'clivel}' from Ikazil 
and Cuba. Probably the most witlely planted varieties in Florida are the 
Duncan, Jo.sselyn, Walters, Pernambuco and Marsh. The Marsh, which 
is a nearly seedless variety is the most extensively i)lanted of any variety 
in ( 'alifoi'nJM. 

The Lime {Citrus limc(ta). — The lime is grown throughout the 
citrus regions of the United States and the West Indies, but is produced 
commercially only in southern Florida and the West Indies. The demand 
for these fruits has rapidly increased in recent years and is assuming some 
importance. The princij)al varieties grown are the Mexican and the 
Tahiti. 

The Mandarin Orange (Citrus nobilis). — This fruit, referred to fre- 
quently as the "kid glove orange" because of its loo.se, easily removable 
skin, is grown to a considerable extent in certain regions of the United 
States, It is in general rather more cold-resistant than the common orange, 
and this has led to its propagation to considerable e.xtent in the Gulf 
states. The Satsuma or Unshiu, an early maturing sort of fair size, is 
grown rather extensively in northern Florida and southern Ceorgia, 
Alabama, Mississipi)i, Louisiana and Texas. The Dancy tangerine is 
grown to some extent in Florida and California and occai<ionally in .some 
other states. 

The Citron (Citrus medico). — The citron, the candied or jne.'^erved 
peel of which is a staple article of commerce, is not grown to any extent in 
America. A grove of about fifteen acres at Riverside, Cal., is the largest 
and only grove known to the writer in the United States. Another minor 
citrus fruit cultivated to some extent as an ornamental and for ])re.'<erving 
is the kuin(|uat (Citrus jnjtonira). 

Citrus Regions and their Production. — While the various citrus species 
are of tropical origin, the conunercial develoiHuent of citrus growing has 
taken place almost wholly in subtropical countries. The most important 
countries in the order of their jjroduction are the United States, Spain, 
Italy, Japan and I*alestine. The nortnal citrus croj) of the world is now 
e(iual to about 1K).()()(K(K)() to 1()(),(MM),(K)() boxes of California cai)acity or 
from 230,000 to 2.")0,000 carloads of California size.* The normal i)roduc- 
tion of the United States is now al>out 78,0(K) carloa<ls; Spain, about 
08,118 carIoa<ls; Italy, 58.000 carloads; Jai)an, 10.8«)() carloads; and Pal- 
estine, i)robably about IMMM) carloads. Small ([uantities oi citrus fruits 
are, of course, produced in many other tropical and subtrojiical countries. 



• "The Worlil'ii PrfMliirtion nnrl Commprro in Oilnin Fniitu nnd thrir n.v-PriKliirtJi." Iiy F. O. Wnll- 
■ohUegcr. Bulletin No. 11, Citrus Protective Leasuo of California, Lot Augdo*. 1014. 



CITRUS FRUITS 



139 



According to the thirteenth United States census, there were in the 
United States in 1910, 11,486,768 bearing citrus trees and 5,400,402 of non- 
bearing age. The production in 1909 reached a grand total of 23,502,128 
boxes valued at $22,71 1,448. This production was divided as follows : Cali- 
fornia, 17,318,497 boxes; Florida, 5,974,135 boxes; Louisiana, 153,319 
boxes; Arizona, 32,247 boxes; Texas, 10,694 boxes; Mississippi, 3779 
boxes; Alabama, 1201 boxes. A few boxes are also produced in Georgia 
and the Carolinas. The increase in yield and acreage since 1909 has been 
very great in California and Florida, so that the above data are very 
much below the present production. 

Propagation of Citrus Varieties. — In the early days of the citrus 
industry, many seedling trees were grown in commercial groves. Now all 
groves are planted with stock budded with varieties of known excellence. 
It is important that the proper stocks be used. Orange and lemon varieties 




Good Orange Seedlings. 

are most extensively budded on sour orange stock, largely because of the 
resistance of this stock to foot-rot or gum disease. Wherever there is 
danger from this malady, the sour orange stock should surely be used. 
Sweet orange stock is also used widely, both in Florida and California. 
Trees on sweet stock probably in general grow rather more rapidly and 
rather larger than on sour stock, but the susceptibility of sweet stock to 
the gum diseases renders its use more limited. In dry, well-drained soils 
in Florida and in the dry interior regions of California it is a very satisfac- 
tory stock. Pomelo and Florida rough lemon stocks have some advocates, 
but have not been generally used. The Trifoliate orange is probably the 
best stock for the Satsuma and some oranges grown in the Gulf states, 
but has not given satisfaction in general. It has a very marked dwarfing 
effect on the Eureka lemon and some other varieties. 



140 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Orange Seedlings.— Sour orange seed for stock puri)oso.s is in ncucral 
()l)taiiu'(l from Florida ; sweet orange seeds are usually taken from any 
sweet seedling grove. Seed must not he allowed to dry out. The seed is 
usually sown about one inch apart in a bed or may l>e drilled in rows. It is 
a good i)lan to cover the seetl about one-half inch deep with clean river 
sand. It is ilesirable in most j^laces to cover the seed-i)ed with a i)artial 
shade of some sort, as of cheesechjth or a lath shed. The seedlings arc 
usually dug when they are about a foot high and trans])lanted t<j the nur- 

ser}'. Before transplanting the 
tops are cut back to ai)out 7 
or 8 inches above the crown. 
The Orange Nursery. The 
nursery should be on a good 
jiorous scjil that contains 
enough clay so that the trees 
can be balled if this method of 
transplanting is desired. The 
seedlings are set about 10 to 12 
inches apart in rows 3.^ to 4 
feet ajjart. The planting is 
usually done with a sjjade or 
dibble. Care must be taken 
not to let the roots get dry, 
and each tree should l)e set jus 
nearly as i>ossible at the same 
relative height it occujjied in 
the seed-bed. The soil must 
be well firmed arovmd the 
roots, and the ])laiits should 
be watered as rapidly as 
l)lanted. Small seedlings and 
those with imjierfect roots 
should never be i)lanted. Only 
the best and largest seedlings 
should be used. The nursery should be thoroughly cultivated, and the 
trees must be pruned occasionally to lead them to develoj) a single 
trunk for G or 10 inches above the ground. It usually requires from IG to 
18 months to grow trees to the right size for budding, an ideal size being 
a diameter of from tliree-eighths to one-half inch at about ii to 5 inches 
above the soil. 

Budding the Nursery Stock.— Trees should be budded from 4 to 8 
inches above tlu^ ground. Budding is done mainly in the s])rinK or in the 
fall. In the latter case, it is expected to kec^p tluMrees dormant until spring. 
Budding is almost universally done by the su-cailcd e\c-liudding method, 

^From Farmcra' Bulletin S30, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 




Shield Budding with Angulaji Wood.' 

A — Cutting tho hud. B— Bud cut ready to in- 
sert. C — Bud showing rut face. D — Bud 
inserted, bark on right side only being rai.s<'d. 



CITRUS FRUITS 



141 



using a cut of an inverted T shape and pushing the buds up, being careful 
to have the leaf-scar of the bud downward. In citrus propagation, espe- 
cially in the dry, arid sections of the Southwest, it is desirable to use strips 
of waxed cloth to wrap the buds, covering the buds entirely with the 
wrapping. The wrapping must remain on until the buds are thoroughly 
healed on, which will require about three weeks. The California method 
of forcing the buds is to cut the tops entirely off about an inch or so above 
the bud. In Florida the trees are cut half off above the bud and lopped over 
into the row, being allowed to remain until the sprout is a foot or so high. 
Care of the Nursery Stock.— As the buds develop into sprouts, stakes 
must be set beside them, and the sprouts tied to the stake at frequent inter- 




Shield or Eye Budding. ^ 

A — Incision on stock. B — Incision with lower ends of bark raised for inserting the bud. 
C — Bud partly inserted. D — Bud inserted ready to wrap. E — Bud wrapped with 
waxed cloth. 



vais to insure straight trees. A single sprout is usually allowed to grow 
until it is about three feet high, and then it is headed back to about 30 
inches or slightly lower. In forming the crown, three or four main branches 
are allowed to grow, and it is important for the strength of the tree that 
these should be on different sides of the young tree and 3 or 4 inches apart. 
Trees are set at one year or two years from the bud. In California and 
Arizona, owing to the dry conditions, nursery trees designed for shipment 
are usually balled. A trench about a foot wide and 14 inches deep is dug 
alongside of the row of trees, and the tap-root cut and the trees lifted with a 
ball of earth remaining around the roots. The ball and roots are then 



iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 539, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



142 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



wrapped in burlap to hold the soil in place. When trees are to Ik; remove<I 
for only a short distance, they may he planted with free roots, as is usually 
done in Florida. CJreat care must be exercised at every point to keoj) the 
roots moist, and they must he thoroughly watered after planting. 

Planting the Orchard. — The site for a citrus orchard imist he carefully 
selected t<» insure success. The warmest regions should l>e taken for the 
lemon and the slightly colder regions for the orange and pomelo. In 
California, the sloping sections next to the hills arc usually considered the 
bust and warmest, ub tliey give g<«jd air drainage. In Florida lands in the 

soutliern i)art of the; state or with water 
l)rotection to the north arc usually the 
warmest. The selection of a goo<l site 
with reference to warmth is highly im- 
l)ortant. 

'I'he orange grows successfully on a 
wide range of soils, but a good, fine, sandy- 
loam soil is usually preferred. It is im- 
portant to liave well-drained land. Citrus 
fruits cannot be successfully grown in 
wet, soggy soil. 

The laying out of the grove is always 
important and in irrigated countries rv- 
([uires very great care, as it is of the 
higiiest imi)ortance to be able to water 
the grove uniformly, and this cannot be 
done unless the irrigation furrows run at 
a uniform and proper sloj^e. 

Leveling or grading the land is rarely 
desirable, as this removes the surface .soil 
from some places and makes it for some 
time unfit for tree growth. 

The land for planting should be 
l)lowed deep and gotten in thoroughly 
good condition, finely pulverized and 
moist. Orange trees arc usually jilanted 
froui 20 to 25 feet, apart, most conunonly 
about 22 feet. Somet lines they are planted 20 feet apart one way and 
22 or 24 feet apart the other way. Lemons and pomeloes are usually given 
rather nujre space than the orange. 

There are four methods of arranging the trees known as the rectangu- 
lar, triangular, (|uincuiix and hexagonal. Of these tin* rectangular or scpiai-e 
is the simplest and mostly cnmmonly used. Planting in scpiares 20 by 20 
feet gives 108 trees to the acre, and planting 22 by 22 feet, a ver>' common 
di.stance, gives 00 trees to the acre. The land to be jilanted nnist be laid 




Shield or Eye Buds' 

A — Method of cutting Itiul from 
round twijj. H — Hud cut ready 
to insert. C — Fiiee of l>ud 
Khowin^? llie rut Hurfiiee. 



> From Fartncra' BuUctio A30, U. S. Dcpt. of Agrirulturo. 



CITRUS FRUITS 143 

out accurately and the location of each tree staked. Before digging the 
holes a notched board with stakes or some other device should be used 
to insure the exact location and level of the tree in setting. The holes 
are dug of the size and depth necessary to accommodate the trees. The trees 
to be set should have their tops cut* back severely and all but a few leaves 
removed. In arid regions, if the trees are not balled, it is not a bad practice 
to remove all of the leaves. 

In planting the trees care should be exercised to plant them at nearly 
the same level as they were in the nursery. To insure this they must be 
set about 4 inches higher ordinarily to provide for settling. Many growers 
prefer to plant five or six inches higher than the level of the gi'ound, having 
the trees on a slight ridge. This the writer believes to be a good practice. 
Balled trees are usually planted with the sacks surrounding the roots, these 
being opened at the bottoms and the strings cut. The sacks rot away in a 
short time. When trees with free roots are planted, the soil must be well 
sifted in around the roots and firmly pressed down. Thorough watering 
must immediately follow the planting. The watering of young trees is 
facilitated by forming small basins around the trees into which the water 
can be run. 

It is important to protect the trunks of young trees from the sun in 
order to prevent sun-burning. This is usually accomplished by loosely 
wrapping several thicknesses of newspapers around them or by means of 
regular protectors that may be piu-chased for this purpose. 

Cultivation. — Young orchards must be thoroughly cultivated around 
the trees. It is a common practice for two or three years to grow a strip 
about ten feet in width of alfalfa, beans or some other crop between the 
rows of trees, keeping a cultivated and irrigated strip immediately around 
the trees. As the grove comes into bearing, the normal cultivation of the 
whole area is taken up. 

Many different systems of cultivation are followed in different places. 
In Florida the common practice is to grow a leguminous cover crop, such 
as beggarweed or cowpeas, in the grove dm'ing the summer, this being 
plowed or disked in, in the fall, followed by more or less frequent, shallow 
cultivations until the early smiimer when the cover crop is again sowed. 

In California the most common practice is to grow a cover crop of some 
legume in the grove during the winter, from September to the first of March. 
The plants most commonly used for this purpose are the bitter clover 
{Melilotus indica) and the vetch iyicia sativa). Of these the bitter clover 
is much the best. The purple vetch (Vicia atropurpurea) , recently 
imported, is far superior to the ordinary vetch for this purpose, and will 
doubtless be much used when a sufficient supply of seed becomes available. 
The cover crop is plowed under to a depth of seven to ten inches during the 
early part of March before the trees begin to bloom and while the ground is 
still in condition and moist from the winter rains. Following this the land 
is harrowed and disked both ways. Very thorough working with the disk 



144 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

is believed to be iircfeniblc to plowing both ways across the Krove, jis is 
sometimes done. After this thorough disking the lan<l is harrowed again 
and tlien left until it is necessary to furrow out for the fii-st irrigation. In 
harrowing, eilher a knife iiarrow siiould be used, or if a spike-toothed har- 
row is used the teeth should be sloped backward in order nt)t to i)ull up the 
cover crop. 

The first irrigation is delayed if possible until after the blooming period, 
but the trees must not be allowed to suffer for water. After the irrigation, 
as soon as the soil has dried sufficiently, the land is harrowed and <lisketl 
both ways and again harrowed. This should leave the surface soil thor- 
oughly pulverized, and with a diy dust muldi. No other cultivation is 
necessary until after the second irrigation. 

During the dry sunnner ])eri()(l an iirigation is necessary al>out every 
month. Following each of these irrigations, the land should be harrowed 
as soon as drj' enough and about a week later cultivated both ways with 
some narrow, shoveled cultivator, running to a dei)th of 4 to 6 inches. 
The.se alternating ixniods of irrigation followed by cultivation are continued 
during the sunnner until the winter cover croj) is sown in the fall. 

In both Florida and California, the ])racticc of mulching a jwrtion or 
all of the land in the grove is gaining in favor. 

Irrigation. — In the citrus regions of California and Arizona, irrigation 
is necessary and is one of the most expensive and ilifficult of all the various 
grove operations. Water in these sections is, however, the limiting factor 
of production, and an ample supply must be provided, ^^'ater is taken 
directly from flowing streams, is punij^ed from un«lerground b:i.sins, or is 
taken from large, artificial storage reservoirs, filled mainly during the winter 
rains. DifTerent locations and soils recjuire diiTerent anxtunts of water. 
A porous, gravelly soil nnjuires more water than a heavy day or adobe .soil, 
the latter l)eing more retentive of moisture although more difficult to wet. 
Groves near the coast where there is more moisture in the air retjuire less 
water than those in the drier interior regions. In general, enough water 
must be jirovided to be e(iual, when coml)ine<l with the natural rainfall, 
to a depth of 35 to 45 inches. In a single irrigation it is onlinarily exi)ected 
to apply enough water to cover the entire surface irrigated tt> a depth of 
about three inches. The supi)ly of water usually provided for citrus 
orchards is our. miner's inch to every four to eight acres.* 

In the furrow method of irrigation the water is distributed over the 
grove by means of several furrows, usually four to six, between each row of 
trees. These furrows, which are made by a s])ecial furrowing tool or ])low, 
should have a uniform fall, j)referably not exce(>ding a grade of one-half of 
one to three per cent. The water should run through them slowly to give 
the lH\st results. While these furrows are usually run .straight, not infre- 
quently they arc curved in lietween the trees to water the middles. The 

* Thn niini-r'n inrh moul commonly uiw><l in Cnlifornin in the nmoiint of wntor thnt will flow through 
a l-inrh ii'iiiiirf i>tM-iiiiiK hioIit u l-iiirh pri-Muro hraU. This i*qiinU I) gnllnim |mt iiiiuuto. Thp s(atut« 
iach i» m gaUuua per luiuutc. 



CITRUS FRUITS 



145 



length of the furrows or of the ''run" ordinarily ranges from 400 to 700 
feet. While 600 and 700-foot runs are common, this is too long to give the 
best results. 

In the basin system of irrigation, square or round basins, about eight 
to twelve inches deep, are formed around the trees, into which the water is 
run either by means of a single central furrow, from which it is turned into 
each basin successively, or by means of steel irrigation pipes fitted together 
like joints of a stove-pipe. In making the basins the soil should be left for 
a radius of about two or three feet around the base of the tree, so that the 
water will not come in contact with the trunk. 

The water is brought into the grove usually either by open cement 
flumes or by buried cement pipes. These are run across the rows along the 
upper edge of the grove to be irrigated. With the open flume, gates are put 
in at intervals to discharge the water wherever a stream is desired. With 
the covered cement pipe flumes, a standpipe is placed at the end of each row 
of trees in which several gates are inserted according to the number of 
furrows or streams desired to be taken from it. 

The lengih of time necessary to run the water is determined by the 
rapidity of penetration. The application should be continued until the 
water has penetrated to a depth of three or four feet. 

Fertilization. — The great majority of soils on which citrus trees are 
grown require manuring to maintain the fertility, and yet no subject is so 
little understood as the fertilizer requirements. If the soil fertility is 
sufficient to provide for good growth in the beginning, then the addition 
of the materials removed by the crop, it would seem, should be sufficient 
to maintain the fertility. The folloAving table shows the average percentage 
of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash in orange and lemon fruits and the 
pounds of these materials removed by a ton of fruit. 

Fertilizer Analysis of the Fruit of Oranges and Lemons. 

(Computed from Bulletin No. 93, University of California 

Agricultural Experiment Station.) 





Nitrogen (N) 


Phosphoric 
Acid (PaOs). 


Potash (K2O). 




Per 

cent. 


Pounds 
per Ton. 


Per 

cent. 


Pounds 
per Ton. 


Per 
cent. 


Pounds 
per Ton. 


Oranges 


0.190 
0.151 


3.80 
3.02 


0.058 
0.058 


1.16 
1.16 


0.219 
0.253 


4 38 


Lemons 


5.06 



Such a table as the above is suggestive only as a guide to fertilization, 
and the same may be said regarding soil analyses. The test of a fertilizer 
on the soil and the crop is the only safe guide. 

In Florida a fertilizer containing about 3 to 4 per cent of nitrogen, 6 to 
8 per cent of phosphoric acid and 8 to 12 per cent of potash is commonly 
used. In California the proportions commonly recommended are 4 per 



140 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



cent nitrogen, 8 per cent phosphoric acid and 4 per cent potash. In general, 

young trees are thought to require more nitrogen and a relatively smaller 

proi)<)rtion of phosphoric acid and potash. 

lu Florida there is a tendency to avoid so far as possible the use of 

organic manures, such as stable 
manure, blood, cottonseed meal and 
the like, o^ving to the effect such ma- 
terials apparently have in the pro- 
duction of the disea.se "die-back" or 
exanthema. Sulphate of ammonia, 
sulphate of potash and superphosphate 
are very largely used. 

In California, on the contrary*, 
the tendency is to use organic sources 
to sup])ly the various elements .so far 
as possible. Experimental results in- 
dicate that organic matter and nitrogen 
are the most important elements to be 
added in the fertilization of citrus 
soils in California and minimize the 
importance of potash and phosphoric 
acid. Eight-year ex])erimcnts show 
no gain over checks by the use of 
sulphate of potash with oranges and 
very slight gains with lemons. Similar 
experiments with sujierphosphate show 
but slif^ht gains over check plats, while 
nitrogen ])lats give marked increase in 
growth and yield. California growers 
in general prefer stable manure to any 
other fertilizer and are also using large 
quantities of alfalfa hay and bean 
straw, both plowed under and as a 
mulch to supply nitrogen and organic 
matter. 

The use of leg\nninous cover crops 
in citrus orchards to suj)iily nitrogen 
and organic matter is recognized as 
good practice, both in California and 
Florida (.see above under "Cultiva- 
tion"), and a considerable amount of 

the ncrcss.-iry nitrogen can be i)roduce(l in this way at very slight exj>en.se. 

Pruning. — Ordinarily orange trees are pruned very little beyond the 

moval of dead brush and wat(>r-sprouts. \n\t this results in the formation 

a very dense tree with the fruit distributed over the surface. The intc- 




PuUNINf, AND RoOtTuIMMINC. OK CiTOU.S 
Tkkk at Timk ok I*I.A.NTI\(!. 



CITRUS FRUITS 147 



rior fruit is in general superior, and the removal of some of the interior limbs 
keeping the tree somewhat open is probably a desirable practice. 

Lemon trees are generally pruned regularly. They should be cut back 
severely from the first and allowed to develop but slowly. The tendency 
of the lemon is to throw out long branches, which fruit at the end and are 
likely to bend over and break off or to be in the way. The principal purpose 
should be to cut back this rapid growth and develop a strong, stocky tree 
that will be open enough to bear considerable fruit on the interior branches. 
The lateral, crooked branches are much more fruitful than the upright, 
straight branches. 

Trees are pruned at almost any season of the year, but the best time 
is in the spring after the danger of freezing is passed. 

Frost Protection. — Many citrus-growing sections are occasionally 
visited by severe freezes that may cause a loss of the crop and even severely 
damage the trees. It has thus been found desirable, particularly with 
lemons, to provide some form of artificial protection. 

In California this protection has been secured by the use of orchard 
stoves, burning crude oil, abundant quantities of which are available from 
nearby oil fields at reasonable prices. The principle of orchard heating, 
recognized as the most desirable, is to get the greatest amount of heat 
possible with the least soot and smoke. Direct, radiated heat is desired 
rather than a smudge. 

In Florida oil heaters have been used to some extent, but there the 
burning of wood piled in the grove and other devices are also used. 

Diseases. — The number of diseases affecting citrus trees is probably 
as great as those affecting any other similar group of plants. For many 
of these satisfactory treatments are known, but there are several maladies 
which are serious that are not as yet thoroughly understood. Only a few 
of the most important diseases can be mentioned. 

The general group of gum diseases is important in most citrus-grow- 
ing regions. Lemon gummosis, caused by the brown rot fungus {Pythia- 
cystis citrophthora) causes considerable damage in California and is also 
present in Florida. This disease, which causes the exudation of gum and 
the decay of the bark on lemon trunks, is effectively controlled by cutting 
out the diseased parts and painting the injured surface with Bordeaux 
paste. Maldigomma or foot-rot, a closely related disease that occurs 
mainly in Florida, is controlled by use of the sour orange stock which is 
resistant to the malady, and may be cured usually by removing the dirt 
from around the crown roots, cutting out the diseased areas and painting 
them with Bordeaux paste. Another type of gummosis is the scaly bark, 
common both in California and Florida mainly on the limbs and trunks of 
orange trees. This disease is not understood at present, but is checked by 
cutting out and sterilizing diseased areas with Bordeaux paste. 

Exanthema or die-back, a disease common in Florida and occurring 
to some extent in California, is apparently due to malnutrition, but is not 



148 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

undorstootl. When caused by use of organic nianuro, such as hlood, stable 
manure and the hke, it is cured by st()i)|)infj; fertiUzaticjn and cultivation 
for a period and mulching the tree. When caused by lack of drainage, 
tile drainage of the area frequently results in a cure. 

Mottle leaf, a very conunon and injurious malady in California, is an 
oi>scure disease, the cause of which is not yet known. \'ery extensive 
investigations of this disease are now in progress. 

Citrus canker, a very serious malady caused by a bacterium (Psendo- 
monas cilri), has recently become epidemic in Florida and the (lulf states. 
It is now knoNXTi to occur in Jai)an and the Phiiijipine Islands and was 
apl)arentl3' introduced into Floritla from one of these sources. An extensive 
campaign is now being waged to eradicate this disea.se by burning ail 
infected trees. 

Verrucosis, or scab, and melanose are two important fungous disea.ses 
occurring in Florida that iiave not a])])eared as yet in California. Wither- 
tip, caused by the fungus Colleiotrichum ylocosporioides, is conunon both in 
California and Florida. It is controlled by jiruning accompanied by spray- 
ing with Bordeaux mixture. 

Many fruit rots caused by such fungi as the cottony mold (Sclerotima 
liber tint ana), brouTi rot {Pythiacystis ciirophlhora) , l)lue mould {Pcuirilliiim 
italicum) and green mould (PcmiciUiuni diyilalum), cause considerable 
loss in the packing-house and in shipment. These are controlled I)y careful 
handling, l)y the use of disinfectants in the wash water and tin* i)roper 
sterilization of the fruit boxes and packing-house machinery and the like. 
(For other diseases see Part II.) 

Insects. — Insect pests arc very numerous in all citrus .sections and 
require the systematic use of control methods to insure the financial success 
of the industry. Wy far the most serious pests are the scale insects of which 
there are numerous kinds. 

In California the most common scale irLsects are the black scale (Sais- 
sdia olcce), the citricola scale {Coccus citricola), the red scale (Chrysomphalus 
auranlii) and the puri)le scale {LcpidosdplKs hcckii). The control of these 
scale jjests is aided to some extent by various para.sites, but fumigation 
with liydrocyanic acid gas about once every two years, or more often if 
necessary, is almost universally practiced. 

The cottony cushion scale (Ictrya piirchnfii), wliich at one time was .so 
serious as almost to threaten the life of the citrus industry in California, 
has been so thorouglily controlled by the introduction of the Australian 
ladybird beetle that it has cea.sed to lx> considered a .serious pest. 

In Florida the most common .scale in.sects are the pur])le scale (Lepido' 
saphc.s bcchii), the long scale {Lcpidosaphes gloim'i), the Florida red scale 
(Chrysumph(dus aonidutn), the chalT scale (Parlaton'a pcryandii), the soft 
brown or turtle-back l)eetle {Coccua hcsperidum), the black scale (Saissvtia 
oIc(t) an<l the hemispluTical scale (Saissrtin hrnn'.yyharica). In the control of 
these insects in Florida, more reliance in hud ujkju parasitic fungi and insect 



CITRUS FRUITS 



149 



enemies than in California. While fumigation is used to some extent, when 
any treatment is used it is usually spraying with paraffin oil emulsion. 
Good's caustic potash whale oil soap, resin wash or kerosene emulsion. 

The white fly (Aleyrodes citri), probably the most destructive insect 
pest in Florida, occurs in only one place in California and has not there 
become widely spread. It is controlled by fumigation or by spraying with 
paraffin oil emulsion, resin wash or kerosene emulsion. 

The mealy bug, red spider, rust mite, thrips, aphis and numerous 
other insects cause damage both in California and in Florida and in other 
citrus sections, but are of minor importance. 




Picking and Packing Oranges. 



Picking, Packing and Marketing of Fruit. — The methods of picking, 
packing and marketing of citrus fruits are probably more highly developed 
than in any other fruit industry. The picking is in large measure done by 
carefully trained special picldng gangs connected with the packing houses, 
rather than by the growers themselves. This insui'es the most careful work 
and handling and the employment of uniformly good methods. 

The curing, grading and packing is also done by specially trained men 
working continuously under inspection to insure careful handling at every 
point. The special machinery devised for washing, drying, grading, sizing 
and boxing has reached a high degree of perfection and is almost univer- 
sally used in the citrus sections of the United States. The watchword of 
all packing houses is careful handling to avoid bruising or puncturing the 
skin of the fruit and thus prevent decay. 

32 



160 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

The inarkrtinK methods have boon dovolopod with similar thorouKh- 
ncss, and a very larj;*' proportion of the fruit f)f California is marketed under 
the direction of a (•(>-< )])erative organization of the j^rowers known as the 
California P>uit Growers' l^xehange. This is probably the most successful 
co-operative organization of growers in the world. 

REFERENCES 

"Citrus Fruits." (V.rt. 

"Citrus Fruits and Their Culture." Hume. 

"California Fruit.s and How to (Irow Tliern." Wickson. 

" r. S. Dept. of .\nriculture liulletin (>."}. "Shipment of Oranges from Florida." 

Farmers' liulletin.s, U. S. Dept. of .Vgrieulture: 

MS. "Sile.s, Soils and \'.iricti('8 for Citrus CJroves in the Gulf States." 
M9. " I'roi)anation of ("itrus Trees in tlie (lulf States." 
542. "Culture, Fertilization and Frost Protection of Citrus Groves in the 
Gulf States." 



CHAPTER 13 

Nuts and Nut Culture in the United States 

By C. a. Reed 
Nut Culturist, United States Department of Agriculture 

THE PRINCIPAL NUTS 

The group of trees which bear edible nuts of commercial importance 
in this country includes a considerable number of species, some of which 
are important in both hemispheres. The most important of the world's 
nuts are the cocoanut, the peanut, the Persian (incorrectly called the 
English) walnut, the almond, the Brazil nut, the pecan, the hazelnut 
(filbert), the cashew, the pinon, the chestnut and the pistachio nut. Of 
these, with the exception of the Brazil nut (nigger-toe. Para nut, cream 
nut, castanea, etc.), which is strictly tropical in its requirements of culture, 
all are being grown to a greater or less extent, in continental or insular 
United States. The pili (pe-lee) of the Philippines and East Indies, charac- 
terized by its reddish-brown (artificial) color, its triangular form tapering 
to a point at each end, its very thick, hard shell and its single kernel, is now 
becoming fairly familiar in our principal nut markets. The pili nut is 
said to be very nutritious and pleasing to the taste when properly matured, 
but as it commonly appears in this country, it is inferior in quality to the 
majority of the better known nuts. 

A choice nut occasionally seen in the American markets is the Paradise 
nut, a near relative of the Brazil nut, which also is indigenous to the low- 
lands of northern Brazil. Paradise nuts are somewhat longer than are 
Brazil nuts, but in the main are triangular in form. They are of a light 
buff color, irregularly grooved lengthwise, and have a close-fitting cork-like 
shell which encloses a single, delicately flavored kernel of fine texture. 

Both the pili and the Paradise nuts are like the Brazil nut in that their 
tropical natures apparently preclude any likelihood of their ever becoming 
commercially important in any part of the United States proper. 

The culture of the cocoanut, together with the drying and shipping 
of its dried flesh or copra, forms one of the leading industries throughout 
all tropics. The cocoanut produces the world's most important nut 
food supply. To some extent the cocoanut palm is grown in southern 
Florida, but thus far more largely as an ornamental and a curiosity than 
for commercial purposes. During the winter season cocoanuts are locally 
in lively demand as souvenirs among the tourists, who place postage and 
the addresses of northern friends on the smooth outer surfaces of the thick 

151 




."■1 Hl.l.\ J 1.1 \ ^ I nil.. 

In its seventh year und beginning tu l)eur. Cairo, Ga. 



IS:^ 



NUTS AND NtJT CtJLTtJRE , 153 

husks and send the nuts through the mails. The expense of removing the 
husk from the nut has thus far made commercial cocoanut growing in this 
country in competition with the cheap labor of the tropics practically out 
of the question. Nevertheless, it is not unlikely that the devising of special 
machinery will soon overcome this problem, and that a more or less thriving 
industry will develop in the marshy borders of southern Florida. A few 
commercial cocoanut plantings recently set may be found off the Florida 
coast from Miami and near Cape Sable in Monroe County; but it appears 
altogether unlikely that the growing of cocoanuts will ever be of importance 
to American farmers outside of the southern parts of Florida, Texas and 
California. 

The cashew nut likewise is of tropical nature. Trees of this species 
are rarely seen in the United States except in experimental plantings in 
Florida and in California. The nuts are borne singly at the apex of fleshy, 
pear-shaped fruits which form in clusters and which are known as cashew 
apples. The nuts are of much the shape of lima beans, but are both larger 
and thicker. In color they are between a purplish and an ashy-gray. They 
have a thin but stout, smooth-surfaced shell, within which is a secondary 
shell, also thin, and which encases the kidney-shaped kernel. 

Between the two shells of this cashew nut there is a thin dark-brown 
fluid of an extremely caustic property similar to that of poison ivy and 
sumac, to which the species is closely related. Roasting entirely dispels 
this poison, and as the nuts are invariably prepared in this manner before 
being placed on the market, the consumer is in no danger of being poisoned. 
The kernels are among the most palatable of all nut products now found in 
our markets. 

For the present, the cashew can hardly be said to be of commercial 
promise in any portion of this country. 

The pistachio is much more hardy than is the cashew. To a considera- 
ble extent the two are now being grown in sections of southern California 
and west Texas, and single trees have been known to survive for a number 
of years in climates where zero temperatures are by no means uncommon. 
Thrifty trees are reported from Kansas and one tree several years of age 
near Stamford, Conn., was in a thrifty condition when seen by the writer in 
1914. However, it is essentially a dry-land tree suited to the milder por- 
tions of the temperate zones. The nuts, which are encased in a thin leath- 
ery covering, form in loose clusters. They have thin but very stout, smooth 
shells which usually split open on one side of the suture while being roasted. 
To a considerable extent, the kernels, which are of greenish color and 
delicate flavor, are consumed with no preparation other than that of roasting 
and salting, but more largely they are ground and used in ice creams and 
other confections. The pistachio tree is a slow grower, requiring several 
more years to come into bearing than is the case with almond, Persian 
walnut or pecan trees. Propagation is by budding and grafting. 

The Peanut. — The peanut is probably a native of tropical America. 



154 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



It does well in light-colored, fertile, sandy loanis in the waniior portions of 
the United States. Its |)ririt'ipal coiitcrs of production in this country are 
in \'irginia and the C'arohn;us, aithoufiii it is coniinon in the entire South, 
west to California. The peanut is eonunon in the markets both in the shell 
or shelled and salted. Peanut butter and peanut oil are now among the 
most valual)le of our common nut products. An average yield of peanuts 
is about 'V\ l>ushels an acre. 

The Pinon (Pin-yon). — The seeds of a niuulter of pines of western 
and southwestern United States, variously known as pinons, Indian or 
Pine nuts and pignolia, form a very important article of food for the Indians 




Fu.vNyLLrrE Walxut Orchard, near Santa Rosa, C.\uit)iiMA. 
Tliis ia the famous Vrooman Orchard. 



and the Mexicans of the Southwest, who gather the nuts in enonnous quan- 
tities. In this country' the pines boarinp; edible nuts are not cultivated; 
the entire crop lx»ing obtained from the native trees in the mountains, which 
usually appear at altitudes of from 5000 to 7000 feet. The home pnxluct 
is largely consumed by the gatherers, and in tlu^ local markets of the West. 
Tlu! nuts are brownish in color, usually mottled with yellow, from an eighth 
to a quarter of an inch in length and have a thin but strong hard sli(«ll. 
The kernels arc vcr>' fine in texture, rich in quality, of ple!u^\nt flavor and 
highly nutritious. The shelled seeds of the stone pine of southern Kuroix*, 
greatly resembling puffed rice in form and color, form an irniM)rtant prcnluct 
in the nut markets of our l-lastern cities. 

The Persian Walnut. — For many centuries this nut, a native of Persia, 



NUTS AND NUT CULTURE 155 

has been under cultivation in southwestern Asia and in Europe, but with 
approximately a half century of serious cultivation in this country it has 
attained its greatest degree of perfection on our Pacific Coast. In the 
Old World, and until recently in the United States, propagation has been 
by seedage, but modern American orchards are comprised exclusively of 
budded or grafted trees. For its best development the species requires a 
deep, fertile, loamy soil, moist but well drained. However, it readily 
adapts itself with proportionate results to conditions less favorable. At 
the present time the chief centers of production in the United States are 
southern California near Los Angeles, the Sacramento Valley in northern 
California and the Willamette Valley of western Oregon. Varieties suit- 
able for general culture in the southeastern quarter of this country have 
not yet appeared. In that area of the Eastern states lying between lower 
New England and the Potomac River on the Atlantic Coast and extending 
west to the Mississippi River, local varieties originating with trees reputed 
to be hardy and prolific bearers of desirable nuts are being given a fairly 
general trial. These are being propagated by budding on the black walnut 
stocks. To date, the chief eastern varieties are the Rush, Nebo, Barnes, 
Potomac, Holden, Hall, Lancaster and Boston. Thus far none of these 
have been given sufficient trial to determine their commercial value. For 
the present, planting should be limited to experimental numbers. 

The most popular varieties of walnuts in southern California are 
the offspring of the Santa Barbara type, established during the late sixties 
by Mr. Joseph Sexton of Santa Barbara, with seed supposed to have come 
from Chile. Southern California walnuts are not sold under variety names, 
but under such trade appellations as ''budded," "numbers one," "two," 
"three," etc.; the term "budded" applying to the large sizes which will 
not pass through inch squares of a wire mesh. 

The leading varieties of northern California and Oregon are from 
French stock first introduced into this country by Mr. Felix Gillet of 
Nevada City, Cal., whose work closely followed that of Mr. Sexton, and 
these to a large extent are sold under their variety names. At present 
the more important are the Franquette and Mayette, direct introductions, 
and the Concord, San Jose and probably the Chase, seedlings of original 
introductions. 

The Pecan. — The pecan is by far the most important nut indigenous 
to this country, and although at present its annual production is less than 
one-half that of the Persian walnut, the increased attention now being 
paid to the native bearing trees and enormous number of planted orchards 
in the south Atlantic and eastern Gulf states combine to make it fairly 
certain that this will soon become the leading nut grown in America. Its 
native range includes much of the lowlands of the Mississippi River and 
its tributaries from Davenport and Terra Haute on the north, south to 
near the Gulf and a large area extending southwest across Arkansas, 
Louisiana, Oklahoma and Texas to near the Rio Grande. Its requirements 




Major, Bliikett, WAiuiicK, Havens and Owens Pecans.' 



' Ycar-Iiook. 1912 U. 8. Dcpt. of Agriculture. 



NtJTS AND NUT CtTLTURE 



of soil and moisture are much the same as are these of the Persian walnut. 
However, it appears to be somewhat more exacting in its moisture require- 
ment, for although being intolerant of improper drainage, it is less able 
to sustain itself proportionately in drier soils. 

The pecan is propagated by budding and grafting on stocks of its 
own species. Under the most favorable conditions seedlings grown from 
nuts planted in midwinter may be budded when eighteen months old, and 
transplanted in orchard form by the end of the next season, or by the time 
the roots have been in the ground for three years. 

Thus far a total of approximately one hundred varieties have been 
recognized in the South. The majority of these already have been elimi- 
nated. At present, the principal sorts of the south Atlantic and Gulf sec- 
tion, including Louisiana, are the Stuart, Schley, Curtis, Van Deman, 
Alley, Pabst, Moneymaker, Bradley, President, Russell, Delmas and 
Success. The leading varieties of central and southwest Texas are the 
San Saba, Halbert, Colorado, Sovereign and Kincaid. 

The varieties of neither of these groups appear readily to adapt them- 
selves to the climatic conditions of the other, nor do they seem capable 
of satisfactorily adjusting themselves to conditions in any of the inland 
states. 

Varieties which have originated in southwestern Indiana and neighbor- 
hood, and which, therefore, now are thought to be well worthy of con- 
servative planting in sections of fairly comparable conditions, are the 
Major, Niblack, Indiana, Posey, Busseron, Butterick, Greenriver and 
Warrick. However, for the present these should not be planted in lati- 
tudes greater than that of Vincennes, with the expectation of regular crops 
of nuts. If set in suitable soil the trees should thrive and live to a great 
age much farther north, but crops of nuts even from the forest trees are 
quite irregular beyond that point. 

The Ahnond. — Culturally speaking, this nut is not of much interest 
to a great part of the United States. Its exactments for cultural success 
preclude its general planting over any large portion of the United States. 
It requires a fertile, moist, yet very well-drained soil and a dry atmosphere 
in a section quite free from late spring frosts. The commercial plantings 
of this country are in the Sacramento Valley of California, where the 
orchards are usually equipped with fire-pots as a protection against frost 
at blossoming time, and in northwestern Utah. A number of large young 
orchards just beginning to bear are on the highlands of Klickitat County 
in south central Washington near tfie Columbia River. The principal 
varieties are the Nonpareil, I. X. L., Ne Plus Ultra, Drakes and Languedoc. 

The almond is propagated by budding on stocks preferably of its own 
species, although peach stocks answer nearly as well. 

At least one variety of hardshell almond (the Ridenhower, of south- 
ern Illinois) is being propagated by eastern nurserymen for variety plant- 
ing about the home grounds in sections adapted to the more hardy varieties 



^^ SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

of peaches. However, in no way does this almond compare witl» iUonc 
in the markot. 

Nuts of Minor Importance. — In (his class belong all of our native tree 
nuts, with the exception of the pecan. Our native hickories, the shaR- 
bark {Ilicoria ovata), the shellbark (Ilicoria lacim'osa) and the pi^ruit 
(Hicoria glabra), the butternut {Juglans cinerea), the American hazel 
{Corvlus anifj-iaina), the beech (Fagu^s (jrandijolia) nnd certain foreign nut^;, 
esiK'cially the Chinese chestnut {Ca.stanca inollissima), and the Asiatic 
walnuts (Juglans sicboldiana and Juglans mandshurica) , aflFord most 
inviting fields for the breeder and improver of nut trees. 

'I'he most of these s])ecies are capal)le of culture in the Eastern states 
from lower New KriKJand south to the middle Atlantic and west to the 
Mississi])])!. It is quite j)robable that this grouj) also offers the most fruit- 
ful possibilities in nut culture in the states lying between this section and 
the Rocky Mountains. 

In general, j)r()si)ective growers of nut trees should obtain their stock 
from reliable nurser>' concerns, and in so far as obtainable, budded or 
grafted trees only should be jilanted. These are not n(jw obtainable to 
any extent of the group just mentioned, although several varieties of 
hickory and black walnut are now being propagated by a few nursery 
concerns. 

Nut trees should l)e ranked in the class with other kinds of fruit trees, 
and must be given the same degree of attention. Under the most favor- 
able conditions commercial returns may be expected with almonds in 
from G to 8 years from tlie time of setting the trees; witli Persian walnut 
trees in from 8 to 10 years; and with southern i)ecans in from 10 to 12 years. 
Almond trees may be set at from 28 to 30 feet apart, while walnuts and 
pecans should be set not nearer than GO feet. 

I'^ach s])ecies of nut tree has its insect pests and fungous diseases, 
each of which is more or less serious, ^^'ith the almond, the jiresent most 
serious pest doubtless is the red sjjider; with the walnut, it is the wahmt 
blight; and with the pecan, it is the rosette; although each species of tree 
ha.s its other serious enemies. 

I^EFERENCES 

GcorRia Expt. Station Bulletin llfi. "IVrans." 

Farmers' Hiillptin 700, I'. S. Dcpt. of A^cri(•nltllro. "Pcran Ciilturo, with Special Refer- 
ence to I'ropagution and New \arielie8." 



CHAPTER 14 

Miscellaneous Tropical Fruits* 

The Pineapple. — As a tropical fruit the pineapple ranks second to the 
orange and banana. Originally a wild fruit, very small in size, it has by 
constant cultivation and improvement been developed into one of the 
choicest fruits in existence. Some varieties now produce very large fruit, 
weighing as much as twenty pounds. 

Pineapples thrive best in Porto Rico, Cuba, Hawaii and the tropical 
islands, but can be grown easily in southern Florida and even further north, 
if not exposed to frost. 

The pineapple resembles the cabbage in that it grows on a short, leafy 
stalk from one to three feet high. The plant is very leafy, the leaves of 
most varieties being edged with spines. 

Propagation. — Pineapples are propagated by means of ratoons, suckers, 
slips and very seldom, when only for experimental purposes, by the seed. 
A ratoon is an individual plant formed among the roots of the mother plant 
and appearing beside it from under the soil. A sucker is an individual 
plant coming from the side of the stem above the soil. A slip is the small 
plant that appears below the fruit on the fruit stalk. The small plants 
that grow on the apex of the fruit are known as the crown slips. There is 
no difference in the kind of plant produced by either the ratoon, the sucker 
or the slip. However, the sucker and the slip are to be preferred, because 
plants from ratoons will die easily if not handled properly. The main thing 
is to select a well-matured slip or sucker. Suckers have an advantage over 
the slips, inasmuch as they are several months older and, of course, they 
bear sooner. Whether suckers or slips are selected to be planted, they 
should be trimmed by cutting the base and stripping off the lower leaves. 
One inch and a half to two inches of stem should be left exposed. It is 
better to let them dry a little before planting. This is called curing. 

Soil. — The pineapple will grow in a great variety of soils, but thrives 
best in light, deep, well-drained, sandy soils. Damp and heavy soils are 
unfavorable. The plant is a gross feeder and calls for a liberal supply of 
nitrogenous fertilizers. Experiments carried on in Porto Rico have demon- 
strated that the plant responds to commercial fertilizers. A small plant, 
although in poor soil, has attained astonishing proportions after the fertil- 
izer has been applied. So, when enough plant-food is available and the 
roots may obtain all the air they need, the pineapple can be successfully 
grown on a wide range of soils. 

*In preparing this chapter the author was assisted by Mr. F. G. de Quevedo, formerly of Porto IUcO| 
OQW teacner of Spanish in I^ennsylvania State College. 

159 




The PiNEAi'1'i.E Plant in FiiriT. ' 

1— M.'iin Ht.ilk. 2— Riitoon. 3— Sucker. 4— Ih'iul of fruit. 5— Slip. 0— Fruit 
7 — Oown Hiip. S — Crown. 



■Courtesy o( U. 8 Dcpt <»f Agricultiirf. I'rgm Porto lUw UuUvtiu No. S. 



MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 101 

From one to two thousand pounds per acre of blood and bone or cotton- 
seed meal will improve the size and quality of the fruit, and maintain the 
fertihty of the land. The following summary taken from Bulletin 104 of 
the Florida Experiment Station, will serve as the best guide for the fertil- 
izing of pineapples. 

(a) Fine-ground steamed bone and slag phosphate are best as sources 
of phosphoric acid; cottonseed meal, dried blood and castor pomace are 
best as sources of nitrogen; high-grade and low-grade sulphate of potash 
are best as sources of potash. 

(6) Nitrate of soda, acid phosphate and kainit have not proven satis- 
factory. (While sulphate of ammonia was not used in the experiment, 
this material has in general practice been found unsuited to pineapple 
culture.) 

(c) In case of shedded pineapples it has been found that it is profitable 
to use from 2250 to 3750 pounds per acre annually of a complete fertilizer. 

(d) Analyses of a large number of fruits (Red Spanish) covering a 
period of four years show that the eating quality of the fruit is not affected 
by the kind of fertilizer used. 

(e) The sugar content of the fruit (Red Spanish) is slightly increased 
by the heavier fertilizer applications. 

(/) The large fruits contain a slightly higher percentage of sugar than 
the small ones. 

(g) The analyses of a large number of pineapple plants show that they 
contain sufficient fertilizing materials, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, 
lime and magnesia to make them of considerable value as a fertilizer. 

(h) With an increase of nitrogenous fertilizers there was found an 
increase of nitrates in the soil. 

(i) Nitrates are most abundant at the immediate surface. After a 
depth of one foot is passed the amount is very small. 

(j) Where the surface of the ground is not protected, the nitrates are 
much less abmidant than where there is a covermg of plants and decaying 
leaves. 

Preparation of Soil. — The essentials for the pineapple are a limited 
water supply, abundance of air for the roots and plenty of available plant- 
food. The selection and preparation of the soil should meet these require- 
ments, as fully as possible. Sandy soils or sand, naturally most nearly 
meet the physical requirements. Such soil should be thoroughly plowed 
and freed from noxious weeds and grass Before starting the plantation. If 
the soil is level and inclined to be wet after excessive rains, it should be 
made into rather wide beds on which the plants are set. The plants are 
set in rows 15 to 18 inches apart and as many as 20 rows to the bed. The 
advantages of this close setting lie in economy in the use of fertilizers, the 
support which the plants give to each other, and the thoroughness with 
which they shade the ground and prevent the growth of weeds and grass 
after they are fully established. With this system of planting, there should 



ir)2 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



be ample room to pass hetwoon the beds for the purpose of carrying the 
fruits from the tiehl when they are mature. There shoiild also Im' ruadways 
crossing the beds at intervals of a few hundred feet sufficiently wide to 
allow the piussage of a wagon. 

When j)lanted on heavier soils (he single-row or doul)le-row systems of 
])laiiting is prefeiTCMl. This allows for horse cultivation by means of which 




I'l.VEAPPLKS Pl.AXTKD IX AN' OrANOB GnOVE.* 

This provides a revenue from the laml while ihv trees arc coining to the bczirinR age. 

weeds and grass arc subduecl .nid the soil kept loose to facilitate thorough 
aeration. 

Pineapple plants bear but one fruit, after which they die. The new 
crop is .secured from the slips and suckers from the mother i)lant. Like 
m<wt crops, piiieai)ples will not .succeed bj' continuous cultivation on the 
same land. A rotation of crops is therefore advi.sed. On soils that are 
especially well ad.ipted to the pineapple three consecutive croj^s can be 
j^own before the soil is devoted to other crops. 

Cultivation. — The cultivation should aim to maintain a loose condition 
of soil and prevent the growth of weeds and gra.^scs. Hand cultivation 
will be necessary in case of level, sandy soils i)lanted in beds as above 

• Courtwy of U. 8. Dcpl. o( Agriculture. From Porto IliroSuUetin No. 8< 



MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 163 

mentioned. The looser the sand the less stirring will be required and the 
greater the saving in labor. When planted in the single-row system the 
cultivation should also aim to support the plants from tipping over as much 
as possible. The fruits being borne at considerable height and being of 
considerable weight, cause the plants to tip. In this position the fruits 
are subject to sun-scald on one side which gives them a poor appearance 
when placed upon the market. 

Varieties. — The leading varieties are the Cayenne, a conical, slightly 
yellow, aromatic, juicy fruit, weighing as much as ten pounds: Queen, an 
exceptionally aromatic fruit, very desirable and very extensively culti- 
vated; it is a good keeper, ships well and weighs as much as eight pounds 
per fruit: Spanish, medium in size, juicy, good quality and early, fruits 
weigh as much as six pounds and are a favorite on many of the markets. 
There are many other varieties that are good for local consumption, but 
not all of them possess good shipping qualities. 

Marketing. — The keeping qualities of pineapples depend largely 
upon the care with which they are handled. They are susceptible to 
injuries, especially bruises, and should be handled as carefully as straw- 
berries or other perishable fruits. Stiff bushel baskets are recommended 
for collecting the fruit from the plants. Some of the varieties may be 
removed from the plants by giving the fruit a quick jerk across the knee. 
Others, like the cabezonas, must be cut off. In all events, the stem must 
never break into the fruit. Cutting with a long stem is advised. 

The fruit is best shipped in crates. It should be graded to uniformity 
in size and appearance. Care should be exercised to so pack that the spines 
on the crowns will not puncture the fruit. 

The Avocado is a tropical tree, adapted to chmatic conditions in south- 
ern California and a considerable portion of Florida. Most of the varieties 
are injured by frost, but the more hardy ones will stand a few degrees below 
freezing. The tree is an evergreen with large, leathery leaves. It attains a 
height of from 25 to 60 feet, depending upon the variety and local conditions. 
The wood is brittle and easily broken by winds. The flowers and fruit are 
easily blown from the trees. For this reason the trees should be grown in 
sheltered locations or artificial windbreaks should be provided. 

The fruit varies in size, shape and color. While it is usually pear- 
shaped, it not infrequently is round or oval. The color ranges through 
light-green, dark-green, brown, purple and red. The center of the fruit 
contains a single, large, round seed. The yellowish-buttery, fleshy portion 
between the seed and the skin is the edible part. It is rich in protein and 
oil, the percentage of the latter ranging from 10 to 30 per cent of the pulp. 
• Professor J. E. Higgins, in Bulletin No. 25 of the Hawaiian Experiment 
Station, describes the fruit as follows: *'Its unique character reduces to a 
minimum its competition with other fruits, while its rich, nut-like flavor 
is almost universally enjoyed among those who have known it long enough 
to become familiar with its peculiar charm. It is a fruit and yet so unlike 



Hit 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



other fruits as to suggest » class of its own, and for tliis reason it has Ix^cn 
called a 'salad fruit.' But this term seems too limiting, because it is used 
in so many other w ays. There are many ways in which it might l)e served. 
Tiie simplest treatment is to cut oi)en the fruit longitudinally, remove the 
seeds and serve, afTording cverj'body the opjiort unity to add salt, pepper, 
\'inegar, olive oil, lime juice or other seasoning in any combination to suit 
the individual taste. Some jnefer it as a des.sert with sugar and cream, or 
with wine and lemon or orange juice. It may be served on the side with 

soup, and in this way is 
delicious. It is true that 
t he tiustc fort he avocado 
is an accjuired one, yet 
there are few, if any, 
food i)ro(lucts wliich so 
quickly overcome any 
])rejudiceandbecomeso 
higiily esteemed. The 
novice may pronounce 
the fii-st fruit worthless, 
but the second is toler- 
al)le, the third good, the 
fourth better, the fifth 
a delight and after that 
the difhcultyof learnuig 
to like them usually 
gives place to that of 
getting them often 
enough." 

The avocado is 
adai)ted to a wide range 
of soils. It demands 
good drainage and 
plenty of organic mat- 
ter. The trees do well 
in th(> southern coa-st district of California and in various sections of 
Florida. The geographic limits of successful avocado culture are at 
present undetermined. 

The avocado responds to ju<licious applications of fertilizers. The 
texture and flavor jus well as the yield of fruit are improved by fertilizers. 
^AC(^ssive amounts of nitrogen should be avoided. 

The trees are propagated from the seeds. These nuist be fresh, su* 
they soon lose their vitality when ex|)osed to the air. It has been a com- 
mon practice to produce bearing trees from the seedlings without grafting. 
The 8ee<I should be planted in the .soil either in iM»ts, in mirsery rows or in 

« Courtesy of Univcniity of California, College of .\griculturc. Berkeley, C«L 




TiiK T.\hT Avocado Fhiit.' 



MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 165 

permanent position in the orchard. They should be planted so that the 
upper portion of the seed protrudes slightly above the surface of the soil. 
Best results are usually obtained by planting in pots and transferring the 
seedlings to the field when they are of the proper size. 

When the trees are not to be grafted the seed should be selected with 
much care, only the largest seeds from trees that produce the best quality 
of fruit being used. Even this care will not insure a uniform good quality 
in the new orchard. Like all seedlings, they seldom come true to the parent 
stock. Best results are, therefore, obtained by propagating through some 




Method of Budding the Avocado.^ 



form of cuttings, selecting the scions from trees that are prolific and produce 
fruit of good quality. 

Until recently it has been thought impossible to successfully bud the 
avocado. Careful study of the subject and numerous experiments have 
resulted in a successful method of budding, following what is known as the 
shield budding method. This is similar to that practiced in the budding of 
citrus trees. The success seems to depend chiefly upon the character of 
growth from which buds to be inserted are selected. Buds from what is 
called second flush in growth have been found superior to those in any other 
stage of development. 

It is often desirable to re-work good-sized trees. This may be success- 
fully accomplished by budding into new wood forced out for the purpose. 
The trees are usually cut back severely in the spring and the cut stubs 

» Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Porto Rico Bulletin No. 8. 
33 



\M SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

covered with wax or paint to prevent decay. Of the new slioots that start, 
only a few are allowed to grow and when these attain a size of threeKjuarters 
of an inch in diameter they are ready for budding in the manner above 
described. 

Pruning should take i)la('e during the early growth of the trees to 
estal>lish low heads and the i)roi)er form. After well grown, trees recjuire 
very little pruning. The wood, being quite soft, will not stand aljuse 
from ]iruning instruments. All cuts should be smoothly made and, on all 
larger branches, should be jirotected with a covering of i)aint or wax to 
prev(>nt decay. 

The seedling trees come into l)caring between the fourth and eighth 
years, the average bearing age being about six years. The life of the tree 
in Florida and California is as yet not determined, although there are 
records of trees eighty or more years old in some parts of the American 
tropics. It will be safe to estimate the bearing life at not over twenty- 
five years. 

Like the deciduous fruits, the avocado has a tendency to fruit in alter- 
nate years. This is generally due to setting more fruit than can l)e properly 
matured. Thinning is therefore advised. This will encourage larger size 
and better quality of the fruits that are allowed to remain and will not over- 
tax the tree so as to prevent its bearing a crop the following year. Individ- 
ual trees of the thin-skinned Mexican variety in southern California have 
produced as numy as 5000 small fruits annually. Such fruits have little 
conmiercial value, but are of considerable value for their seeds, which are 
u.sed for mirsery puri)0.ses. Of course, these should all be grafted or budded 
before being set in orchards. 

All fruits that are to be placed ujion the market should be hand picked 
and handled with the gr<>at<'st care. Orange cli])])ers arv advised for this 
pur]M)se, about three-eighths of an inch of the stem being left on each fruit. 
The fruits, if to be shipped, should l)c carefully wrapped and packed in 
small packages, so that they will carry without injury. Fruits of fine 
quality in good condition on the large city markets in the Cnited States 
sell for 'M) to 75 cents each. The kind of fruits to ship will deiu-nd upon 
market denumds and the shij)])ing (|ualities of the different varieties. 

The industry of growing avocados is comparatively new and a list of 
the most <lesirable varieties for difTerent jiurposes is not available. At 
lea.st twenty-five difTerent varieties of Calif«>rnia origin lufve come to 
notice. It is doubtful if the commercial variety of the future has yet 
apjK'ared. At least, none have been found that may be considered good 
8hipj)ers. 

As a fniit the avocarlo exceeds in food value all other species. A test 
of the food value of twenty-six varieties gave an average (»f 0S4 calories per 
pound of edible fruit. This is important, iis it is more than twice the maxi- 
mum noted for any other fruits. The fuel value is not far from twice that 
of average lean meat. Of courec, they aic much lower iu protein. 



MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 



167 



The avocado is worthy of careful experimentation in those localities 
where climate will permit of its growth. It doubtless has great possibili- 
ties, although the demand for the fruit at present is limited. 

The Mango. — It originated in India. There it has been cultivated 
for many centuries and the fruit is as important to the people of that 
country as is the apple to the people of North America. 

The fruit of the mango is not well known outside of the regions in 
which it is grown. It is strictly a tropical fruit and under favorable condi- 




Fruit of the Mango. Seed on the Right. i 



tions the tree attains a height of sixty feet or more and produces fruit for 
several decades. In the United States it is grown chiefly in the southern 
part of Florida. When in a dormant state the trees will withstand a temper- 
ature of seven or eight degrees below freezing, but if growing rapidly when 
freezing weather occurs, the trees are killed back to the ground. 

It does best on fairly deep, rich, well-drained soils, but requires a 
liberal amount of moisture. 

Mango trees are usually propagated from seeds. As with any other 
fruit, trees produced in this way are not true to the parent stock. More 



iCourtesyof U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Annual Report of Porto Rico A. E. S., 1912. 



l«;s SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

recently, niethotls of grafting by inarchinp and patch grafting have come 
into use. The usual method of budding deciduous trees has not given 
satisfaction with the mango. 

Inarching has long been in use in India. It has l^ecn adapted in 
Florida with many modifications. 

The mango seeds are generally planted in pots four or five inches in 
diameter and eight to twelve inches deep. The.se may be made from cjT^ress 
shingles or by using the intcrnodes of rather large bamboos. The seeds are 
laid flatwise in the .soil and covered to a depth of about an inch and a half. 
The ix)ts nuist be watered at fr(»quent intervals. 

Be.st results are secured if seedlings are kept under ])artial shatle 
When they have attained a height of ten to twelve inches they are ready 
to be inarched. The jiots are brouglit near the tree from which scions are 
to lx> secured. If the tree is .so tall that its branches camiot be bent down to 
the ground, it will be nece.s.sary to i)rovide a scaffolding to support the pots. 
The tree selected for this purpose should be one bearing the best quality 
of fruit. Branches for inarching should be in .such condition that the bark 
will jM-cl freely. A strip of bark about three inches long is removed from 
the side of the stock. A similar strij) is also removetl from the scion and 
the two are brought together so that the cut surfaces will fit clo.sely and are 
securely held by wrapping. In about two weeks a cross-cut may be made in 
the stock two or three inches above the union and in the scion, just below 
the union. After two more we(>ks, these cuts may be (leei)ene<l. At the 
end of .six weeks all plants shoukl be carefully inspected. If a good union 
ha-s lx?en efTected the plant may now be severed from the tree and the top ot 
stock removed. The i)lants should now be transferred to a i)lant ]\uu<-o or 
the shade of a tree, where they should remain until one good flush of 
groNvth luus matured. They are now ready to set in the field. 

Budding the mango by the square ])atch method is also successful. 
For this purpose the .stock or branch should be an inch or more in diameter. 
A patch of bark one and one-half inches long and three-(|uarters of an inch 
wide is removed with a sharj) knife or chisel. Next the desire<l bud with an 
efjual amount of bark attached is .secured and fitted securely to the stock. 
Tlie bud should be held in i)lace with raffia or other wrai)ping material. 
The wrapping should not be too tight. \ suitable form of grafting wjlx 
should be used to sm(»ar th(> cut e(lge ;ind keep out water. The whole stem 
for .several inches above and iu'low the bud should be covere(l with waxe»i 
cloth, leaving only the bud open to view. Budding shouKl take place when 
the .sap is moving freely. 

Alango trees should be planted about thirty feet apart each way. 
They should be properly care(l for so as to form low-headed trees ^\^th 
strong branches from which the fruit can Ik; eiusily gathereil. 

It is advisable to inter-till and during the early stages of growth inter- 
cropping may often lake place. 

The trees begin to bear from five to nine years of age. 



MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS ir,9 



For immediate use the fruit should be allowed to ripen on the tree. 
If it is to be stored or shipped long distances it should be gathered before 
it fully ripens. If hand picked, wrapped in paper and packed in small 
packages, it will keep for several weeks. The keeping period may be 
lengthened by cold storage. 

The fruit is best prepared for eating by placing on ice, until thoroughly 
chilled. In this 
condition it may 
be readily peeled 
and sliced. The 
fruit is used chiefly 
in the fresh state, 
although in the 
tropics where 
grown it is fre- 
quently used for 
sauce or made into 
pies and lias great 
possibilities for 
various forms of 
preserves. 

The Banana. 
— The banana is 
strictly a tropical 
fruit. It is a large 
herb, with aperen- 
nial root stalk. 
The top grows 
rapidly and 
reaches a height of 
from ten to thirty 
feet, depending on 
variety. It 
requires from 
twelve to fifteen 
months from time 

of planting to the maturity of the fruit. Each plant bears one cluster of 
fruit, and upon its maturity the plant dies. Numerous shoots arise from 
the base of ^the original plant. Most of these are removed for use in 
establishing a new plantation, but some are left to take the place of the 
old plant. 

Within the past thirty years the banana has become popular in the 
markets of the North and is quite extensively used. It excels in the ease 




A Top- WORKED Mango Tree in Fruit. ^ 



•Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. From Annual Report, Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment 
Station, 1913. 



170 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

with wliich it is handled. On the plantation a cluster of from 100 to 200 
fruits, e(iual in amount to a crate of other fruits, is severed from the ])lant 
with one stroke of the machete. The fruits are protected by a tough skin 
which reatlily separates from the rather dry meat. 

The banana is cultivated in practically all tropical countries. Those 
countries leading in banana production are Jamaica, Costa Kica, Cuba and 
Honduras. The commercial supply for North America comes chiefly from 
the AW'st Indies. 

There are countless varieties of bananas, but v('r>- few of tliese are of 
commercial importance. Many of the most delicious ones are of local 
value only because of small size or j)oor shii)i)ing ciualities. The varieties 
usually met with in the markets are the large yellow fruits, and, less fre- 
quently, the red ones. 

The clusters of fruit are cut from the plant when quite green and hung 
up in a dark room to ripen. When shij)ped to distant markets, the fruit is 
sent directly from the i)lantations to the fruit steamers, and ripen while in 
transit. They generally reach their destination before they are sufficiently 
ripe to use. 

The banana is grown in Florida and the southern portion of the Gulf 
states. It is found as far north as Charleston, S. C. In the extreme 
northern limits it is grown chiefly as an ornamental plant. In the .southern 
half of Florida it has been grown commercially to a limited extent. For 
central Florida the Orinoco and Hart varieties are be.st. These are both 
early and hardy. In the southern i)art of the state the Dwarf Jamaica 
variety is successfully grown. If freezing weather occurs, the ba.se of the 
plants to a height of two or three feet may be protected with earth or straw. 
If the tops are frozen they should be removed by cutting just \yo\ow the 
frozen portion. A new growth will start almost immediately from the 
center of the .stalk and will mature fruit before the clo.se of the .sea.son. 

With few excei>tions the banana is seedless, and mu.st therefore lie 
propagated by planting suckers or sprouts. The.se are generally removed 
from the mother plant when several feet in height. By cutting the top of 
the sucker back to a foot in height it will keep for .several weeks. These 
are .set in the new plantation at intervals of ten to fifteen feet ai)art each 
way. The larger the variety, the greater should be the distance between 
plants. 

Bananas require a fertile, welUIrained soil, well supplied with hunui.s. 
They develop best in a humid climate. Their extensive and tender foliage 
necessitates jjrotection from strong winds. The soil between the plant^i 
should be cultivated to subdue weeds and grass and to conserve soil 
moisture until the plants are large enough to shade the grountl. 

The Fig. — \\'hile the original home of the fig tree is around the Persian 
(lulf, the tree will grow and thrive in any warm climate. It is very hardy 
and noted for its longevity, often remaining productive for a hundred years. 

The fig can be cultivated in the warmer parts of the United iStates and 



MISCELLANEOUS TROPICAL FRUITS 171 

will withstand considerable freezing. The young shoots are easily frosted, 
but, owing to its hardy constitution, a tree though severely frosted will send 
forth new shoots and will often bear fruit the following season. A heavy 
frost, however, while the sap is flowing freely, is apt to be fatal. 

The warm interior valleys of Arizona and Cahfornia, being dry, are 
much more favorable for fig culture than the Gulf states. The rainfall of 
the Gulf states, occurring at the time of fig ripening, often causes the fruit 
to burst and decay before maturity. The fresh fig is a delicious fruit, but 
on account of its perishable nature, has not been widely cultivated for 
commercial purposes. 

The fig tree will grow and thrive in a variety of soils. It is a gross 
feeder and requires much moisture for its long spreading roots. Where 
frosts are liable to occur, rich, moist lands should be avoided, as this kind of 
soil promotes a late luxuriant growth, which is very easily killed by frost. 

The fig is propagated by means of suckers and cuttings. Seldom is it 
propagated by seed, as seedlings have a tendency to revert to their wild 
state. Trees from seedlings require three years before beginning to bear, 
and several more years to come into full fruitage. Trees from cuttings 
may bear a few figs the first year and will be in full fruitage in two or three 
years. Cuttings six or eight inches long should be made from young, 
well-seasoned wood. These should be made in the spring before the sap 
begins to run, and hung inverted for a time until the ends are calloused over. 

The trees mature more rapidly if the cuttings are planted in their 
permanent position. They should be planted in a deep hole, filled in with 
rich compost, and liberally watered. Cuttings, transplanted after growth 
has begun, are often retarded two or three years in growth. Barren trees 
may be successfully grafted. 

Fig trees planted in orchards should be fifteen or twenty feet apart. 
This distance is sufficient for the Southern states, but in the Pacific Coast 
region, where the trees grow to a greater size, thirty to forty feet is a better 
distance. The low-branching varieties are best, as they are not so easily 
injured by M'inds. 

Except to remove dead or decayed limbs, the fig tree requires very 
little pruning. In young orchards the cultivation must be shallow in order 
to avoid injury to the surface roots. Fertilizers scattered broadcast and 
worked into the earth near the trees are beneficial in the early stages of 
growth. 

The Guava. — The guava, a native of tropical America, has spread to 
all tropical countries. In character of gro^i^h and fruit it most nearly 
resembles the quince of temperate regions. It is sometimes called the 
apple of the tropics. 

The plant is a shrub, seldom attaining a height of more than twelve 
feet. The vegetative growth is easily killed by frost, but is renewed quickly 
from the roots. For this reason it can be successfully grown in sub-tropical 
localities. 



172 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

The fniit varies Rroatly in size and color, ranf^n^ from an inch in 
(lianu'tcr to llio si/o of larKc apjjlcs. \\'lioii ripo. it is \vliit(« or yollow. with 
a sul)-aci(l jnilp of the same color as tiic skin. 'J'ho color sometimes (leei)ens 
into crimson. The fruit contains many small seeds. It is used chiefly 
for makiiif!; jelly and preserves. 

The fiuava is jjropasated from seeds and cuttinRs. 

Recently this fruit has received considerable attention in Florida, where 
it finds a j^lacc in nearly every fruit garden. Where frosts occur, the tops 
may be protected during the winter by laying them down and covering 
them with straw and earth. 

REFERENCES 

"Text Rook of Tropiral .VKriculturo." Nicholls. 
Culiforniii lOxpt. Station liullctins: 
2oU. "Tho Lo<|ii:it." 
'2'A. "Tlio Avocado in California." 
Florida Expt. Station RuUctins: 

101. "I'inoapplc Culturo, VI." 
104. "Rincapplo Culturo, VII." 
Hawaii Hxpt. Station Rullclins. O. E. S., I^^. S. Dopt. of .Xnrindturo: 

2S. "ElTcct of .MaIl^;ano.se on Pineapple I'lant.s ami Fruits." 
2o. "Tlie .\vocado in Hawaii." 
12. "Tlio Maiiiio in Hawaii." 
20. " Shield Huddinn the Mango." 
36. "The Pineapple in Hawaii." 
29. "Management of Pineapple Soils." 
Porto Rico Expt. Station Rulietin 11, O. E. S., V. S. Dept. of .\Kriculture. "Relation 

of Caleareous Soils to Pineapjile Chlora.sis." 
O. E. S., U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin S. "Pineapple Growing in Porto Rico." 



CHAPTER 15 

The Farm Woodlot 

By F. F. Moon 

Professor of Forest Engineering, College of Forestry, Syracuse 
University, N. Y. 

Need of Forestry. — To properly solve the land problem of any nation 
each acre should be put to its best permanent use. Field crops should be 
grown upon the tillable areas and the land which is too steep or stony for 
cultivation or too sterile for ordinary field crops should be made to produce 
repeated crops of timber. That is why the practice of forestry, which is 
"the raising of repeated crops of timber on soils unsuited to agriculture," 
is necessary to secure the proper use of all the land. 

Forestry is not a part of agriculture. It is separate, but co-ordinate 
and interdependent. Agriculture has first call upon the land and selects 
the fertile and level areas for tillage. Forestry takes the remaining portion 
and raises the timber indispensable to our civilization. Both are concerned 
with crops, since the forester regards his timber-covered areas as fields to 
be sown (either by nature or artificially), tended and finally reaped, for 
forestry means using the products of the forest and does not mean locking 
up the woodlands for park purposes, as some people think. 

The practice of forestry upon the non-agricultural soils is absolutely 
essential for three reasons: 

(1) Timber is absolutely indispensable to our civilization. 

(2) There are large areas of land which can never be used for agri- 

culture. 

(3) The indirect influence of the forest in moderating climatic 

extremes, in controlling run-off, etc., is necessary to the success- 
ful practice of agriculture and to the health and comfort of the 
people. 

1. Next to food, shelter is most important. According to Fernow, over 
half our population live in wooden houses, and two-thirds use wood for 
fuel. The same authority estimates that 95 per cent of all the timber 
consumed in the United States is for necessities. 

Our per capita consumption of wood is unusually high, and on the 
increase. (It is twice what it was fifty years ago.) We consume six times 
as much timber per capita as in Germany, and twenty times as much as in 
Great Britain. 

2. Agriculture can never be practiced on a large part of this continent, 
and this land must not be allowed to lie idle. Of the 1,900,000,000 acres 

173 



174 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

of land in the United States, 550,000,000 acres are now covered \\ith forests 
(05 per cent of the original forest area) and 415,0(X),000 acres are devoted to 
agriculture. Agricultural experts have estimated that within the next fifty 
years the forest area of this country will have been reducctl to about 
.■i()(),()(M),()(X) acres, and that the present area of forest land held in the form 
of farm woodlots (190,000,000 acres) will have diminished to 90,000,000 
acres. So that with the exhaustion of virgin supplies of timl)er, the farm 
woodlot will l)e relatively nmch more important fifty years hence than it is 
at the i)rosont time. 

3. The indirect influences exerted by forest cover are much greater 
than is generally supposed. Recent investigations have indicated tliat the 
rains in the interior of a continent are largely dependent on the presence of 
large bodies of timber situat(>d in the track of prevailing winds. 

In some parts of the Middle West tiie value of windbreaks in checking 
the force of hot southern \\'inds may exceed tiieir value as a source of timl)er, 
fuel and fencing. The influence of forest cover upon run-ofT — the dr>'ing 
up of sjirings, the increase in spring floods after extensive forest denuda- 
tion — are well known. Water experts claim that the gradual lowering of 
the water in the noil is flependent to a large degree upon the absence of 
sufficient forest area. 

Value of the Woodlot. — The value of a good woodlot to a progressive 
farmer is hard to measure in dollars and cents. It serves the following 
ends : 

(1) It furnishes timber for home construction i)uri)o.scs, fuel, fence 

posts, etc. 

(2) It should now, as in the pa.st, furnish winter employment to 

horses and men. Domestic timber, telejihone poles or railroad 
tics for the market, etc., can all be taken out during the winter 
months to the vast improvement of the bank account and wood- 
lot. 

(3) A good woodlot is like a bank account— it can be drawn on in ti?ne 

of need. After a fire, the barn may be largely rebuilt from 
home timbers, and in case money is badly needed, some logs 
or poles may be sold to tide matters over. A good farm 
woodlot is a fine nest egg. 

(4) It vastly improves the appearance of the home place and makes 

it more salable. 

Aside from sheltering the homestead and barns from wintr>' blasts, 
the woodlot covers the steep, rocky slopes or the marshy sjwts that would 
otherwise i)e most unsightly. \'iewed from every standpoint — revenue, 
year-round farm management, appearance, real estate value and comfort — 
the woodlot is a splendid a.s.sct to an up-to-<late farm. 

Managing the Woodlot. — The average woodlot at present is suffering 
from the wrong jxtint of view. It ha.s Ikmmi grazed and grazed again, burned, 
culled and culled again until in many casva the compact soil cannot suppor 



THE FARM WOODLOT 



175 



the growth of any desirable species or specimens. With the enormous stand 
of timber covering the agricultural land in colonial times, it is no wonder 
that the forest was attacked vigorously and even ruthlessly by the early 
settlers. It covered lands needed for tillage and it harbored enemies, 
beasts and redskins, of equal ferocity. With the end of the virgin timber 
supply less than five decades away, the farm woodlot is destined to play a 
still more important role in supplying the local markets with necessary 
timber. The reduction in the forest area and the increase in the value of 
forest products will make the woodlot more profitable each succeeding 
decade. Since a crop of timber cannot be grown over night, now is the time 
to start for the benefit of the next generation. 




A Well-Protected Farm Homestead. 

By protecting farm buildings with trees, comfort of the family is vastly increased and 
farm economy better maintained. 



To make specific recommendations for the management of the farm 
woodlots in different parts of the country is impossible, for climate, soil 
conditions, species and markets are all different. General points only can 
be covered and if further details are necessary, bulletins from the Federal 
Forest Service at Washington or State Forest Office, or Manuals on Wood- 
lot Management may be sent for. 

At the outset the forest should be regarded as a crop of trees. It is 
sown by nature and is harvested only once every forty to sixty years, but 
if the crop idea is kept in mind the cultural methods to be pursued will be 
very easy to follow. The woodlot contains tree weeds, as well as desirable 



170 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

siK-cies, and the woods iis usual, should be exterminated. The laws of 
plant growth, a.s understood by the average farmer, apply to trees in the 
forests as well as to the plants in the field. There is only so much growing 
energ>' — light and heat, m<)istur(> and i)lant f»)od— available for each acn? 
of forest. This energj' should be confined to a few valuable trees and not 
scattered among the several hundred aiklitional weed trees that stand 




FlLLU .\.NU WUODLOT. 

T'pon the fcrtilo. Irvol lands fiold crops should ho raised, while the steep, rooky hillsides 
uii.siiilofl to auriculturc aiiuuld be made to yield curi)s of timber. 

iipon each acre. It should be the aim to rai-sc a crop of valuable timber 
and not forest weeds. 

Improvement Cuttings. — I'tider ordinary circum.««tanres no improve- 
iiiciit (•uttiii^> arc attempted imtil the material to be cut is large enough to 
pay the cost of removal. C'uttings to improve the comp<)sition are some- 
times made in very young stands where intensive management is i)ossible. 
Such cuttings, or cleanings as they are called, are ordinarily Iwyond the 
I)ale of woodlot management, as the aver.a^e farmer cannot .alTord to make 
the iuve^tmeut (§1.50 to S3 per acre in youug spruulb) which buch cleanings 



THE FARM WOODLOT 



177 



would cost. Therefore, it is better to postpone the cutting until the 
undesirable specimens reach cordwood size (say twenty-five to thirty 
years), when a thinning may be made. 

The general idea in such a thinning would be to remove competing 
trees which take light, food and moisture from the straight, thrifty trees 
of more desirable species. Every farmer loiows which trees are valuable 




A WoODLOT AFTER ThINNING.'' 

By removing dead and diseased trees and those of less desirable species, the remainder 
of the stand will greatly increase its growth rate. 



in his neighborhood and which individuals are not thrifty. In the Eastern 
states, for example, such trees as ash, basswood, tulip-poplar, red oak, etc., 
are generally favored over the slower-growing and less desirable beech, 
maple, black oak, horn bean, etc. Rapid-growing conifers, like pine and 
spruce, are to be preferred to slower-groAving and less valuable species like 
hemlock and white cedar. As a rule, conifers should be encouraged upon 
poorer soils, since they make less demand upon the site for plant food and 
moisture. 



ITS SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

A method of thinning a woodlot which foresters term the French 
method, can be used in many stands to ativantage. The idea is to select 
from 200 to 2.')0 trees per acre, depending on the species, soil, etc., to form 
your liiial croj), and to remove all weed trees or defective specimens which 
are in any way interfering with the growth of these selected trees. By cut- 
ting away the trees crowding and competing with them, all of the growing 
energy will ho forced into the straight, thrifty stems wliich remain, with 
the result that the succeeding years' growth rings will be laid on the trees 
of greatest value. In this way railroati tics may be secured at thirty-five 
years, whereas if left untouched, they would not reach sufficient size until 
forty-five or fifty years. 

For the final result, the technical quality of the species (including 
local demand), the growth rate and the condition of the individual tree 
determine whether or not it should be removed. Briefly summarized, 
the points to be kept in mind in making a thinning are as follows: 

1. Leave straight, fast-growing, thrifty trees of most valuable species. 

2. Avoid making holes in the canopy that will not be filled within 

five years by the natural growth of the crowns. (I*>xcessive 
exposure of the soil to sunlight causes dr>'ing out of the soil, 
a rapiil growth of weeds and diminished volume growth.) 

3. In case of doubt, leave a tree, as it may be taken out at the time 

of the next thinning. 

Reproduction Cuttings. — The previously described cuttings are 
designed primarily to hasten growth and to improve the composition of 
the stand. The reproducing of the stand is not intended, although a heavy 
improvement cutting in a woodlot old enough to produce seed may result 
in a fine stand of young seedlings the next spring. This is by accident 
rather than by design. 

In certain of the Middle Western states where grazing is permitted in 
the woodlot as a matter of course, where fires and bad cuttings have ex- 
haust (><l and compact (>d the soils, reproduction cuttings are out of the 
(jucstiiHi. Only weed trees or old and dccrei)it si)ecimens of desirable 
varieties are still standing. The best, the only way, in cases hke this, is 
to cut dean and rei)lant with si)ecies suited to the region. 

Where the soil is in good shape and good .seed trees are found, a light 
cutting to i)r(>pare the soil, followed two or three years later by another 
thinning to give more light to the seedlings on the ground, will provide 
sufficient stand of reproduction. The thinnings, to \)c successful, require 
considerable care in removing the defective trees and specimens whose 
see(l is not wanted. (Ireat care should be exercised to |)revent excessive 
light coming in at first, as weeds may then choke out desirable seedlings. 
.\fter the .seedlings have gotten started the trees overhead are gradually 
removed, the cuttings being located where light is needed for profx^r devel- 
opment of the yomig growth. When the l(>aves of {ho .seedlings turn a 
yellowi.'ih-grecn, more light is needed and u few nearby trees should be cut. 



THE FARM WOODLOT 



179 



In regions where the sprout hardwoods are found (chestnut, oaks 
maples, etc.), reproduction may be secured by clear cutting, allowing the 
woodlot to spring up from stumps. The best time for sprout reproduction 
is under thirty years of age, but ordinarily good sprouting species will 
retain this quality until fifty or sixty years of age. This type of manage- 
ment, coppicing as it is called, should not be practiced too many times in 
succession, as the soil becomes exhausted and the vitality of the stand 
lowered. 

Pruning. — In certain parts of the East farmers have attempted to 
secure a higher quality of lumber by artificially pruning coniferous stands. 




Good Work in Piling Brush. 



Advocates of this plan claim that the clear lumber thus produced will 
bring a sufficiently larger yield to pay for the cost of this intensive process. 
On the other hand, men who have sawed second growth white pine, which 
was artificially pruned, claim that loose knots are produced by too rapid 
drying of the stub. If pruning is desirable to improve the looks of a piece 
of woodland — to open up a vista beneath the crowns — it may be done, but 
let the cost be charged against landscape improvement and not added to 
the cost of the forest crop. 

Planting. — Where it is desired to cover an unsightly area or abandoned 
pasture with trees, planting may be resorted to, as the proper species are 



ISO SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

iiniupdiatcly started at the correct distance. The question is often raised, 
"\\'hy is not nature's method followed and seed scattered broadcast on 
the soil?" The answer is this: It has been found after repeated exi)eri- 
monts that broadcast seeding is not only extremely expensive on account 
of the high jirice of seed, but the results obtained are decidedly uncertain, 
owing to the activity of scjuirrels or field mice anil the frequent drying out 
of the seed. Placing young seedlings in the ground six feet apart is more 
certain and clieaper in the long run. Planting six feet aj^art each way, an 
acre containing 1210 trees can be i)lante(l at a cost of .57 to §10, dei)ending 
nil price of labor and whether seedlings or transj)lants are used. 

If the woodlot has been very nnich run down as a result of injudicious 
cuttings, exces.sive grazing or repeated fires, it may be desirable to plant 
under the ojienings with fast -growing, shade-bearing species. In this 
ca.'^e it is desiral)le to first make as heavy a thinning as circumstances 
will permit, and then, after the timber has been removed, plant the open 
spaces immediately with the chosen species before gra.ss and weeds take 
possession of the soil. Underi)lanting a run-down woodlot of broad-leaf 
trees with four-year transplants of sjjruce or i)ine is a splendid way of 
injecting new blood. The trees will cost about one cent each in the ground, 
and from three to four hundred per acre is generally sufficient. 

Financial Results. — The best measure of the success of any farm 
activity is the financial yield obtained, and it is safe to say that the 
difficulty in marketing the forest crop and the long waits between 
receipts are largely re.sj)onsil)le for the slight attention i)aid the woodlot. 
Forest numagement must be financially profitable before it will be accejited 
by the farmer. 

At the i)resent time forest products are not sold as easily as grain, 
IM)tatoes or fruit, and this fact often causes discouragement. While the 
average farmer will scan the market reports ver>' closely to find out the 
prevailing j)ricc for his field croj^s, the same man is apt to sell the standing 
timl)er on his woodlot to the first mill owner who offers him real money. 
If the selling of forest i)roducts can be simi)lifieil and the farmer can Ikj 
jussured a reasonable return from his non-agricultural acres, it is certain 
that the practice of forestry by the individual owner will advance rapidly. 
These small holdings are <lestined to play a more imjMirtant i)art in sui)i)ly- 
ing local timber markets in the coming generation, but it is necessary that 
proper marketing facilities be provided in ortlcr that the owners receive 
a fair return. 

When an olTer is made for "all the timber on the woodlot." great care 
should be exercised before it is accei)te<l. Such a sale usually results in 
parting with the cream of the trees at a meagre j^rice and leaving the land 
in the pos.se.s.sion of fore.st weeds, for the local mill man generally "skins 
the lot." It is far better to designate by axe marks the mature tnn's and 
those that should be renmved for the good of the remaijider, and thus sell 
a known amount at a fixed i)rice i)er thousand board feet on the stump. 



THE FARM WOODLOT 181 

A sale contract covering methods of cutting, payments, fire protection, 
provision against waste and excessive damage should be drawn. 

The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse has provided a 
selling service for the private timberland owners of the state. Two years 
ago a study of the wood-using industries was made in connection with the 
Federal Forest Service, and at that time considerable data concerning 
stumpage i^rices, costs of manufacture and value of manufactured products, 
etc., were secured. This information is on record in a card catalog, and 
when a farmer or small land owner writes for information concerning the 
management of his woodlot and a possible sale, he is put in touch with the 
nearest manufacturer, and the dimension and grades in demand and aver- 
age selling price given him. By this means the College of Forestry is acting 
as a clearing house for information and is endeavoring to secure a fair 
price for the man who raised the forest crop. In the extension of this 
scheme of co-operative marketing of forest products lies the future profit- 
able management of non-arable lands by the farmers of this country. 

As previously stated, forestry must be financially profitable, else it 
will not be practiced by the business men of this country. The farmer, 
however, is in the best possible position of all owners of forest land to 
practice forestry, for he has the land, he has an annual income from 
his arable land, and finally, he has the winter season to work in his 
woodlot. 

European experience proves beyond a doubt that forestry does pay 
good dividends — from $2.50 to $7 per acre per year net revenue — while 
from the woodlots of this country, a revenue of $109,000,000 in 1899 and 
$195,000,000 in 1909 was obtained. 

Forest plantations will yield from four to five per cent compound 
interest upon the value of the land, plus the cost of planting. Thus it can 
be proven conclusively that the practice of forestry is a paymg proposition 
at present stumpage values, while the reduction in the timbered area 
will cause an increase in these values and much higher yields will be 
obtained. 

Summary. — The farm woodlot should be treated as a producing 
portion of the farm, and the following points should be borne in mind : 

1. Tend your woodlot during the slack periods. It will pay hand- 

somely. 

2. Cut your firewood and fence posts where cuttings are needed, 

and not where it is easiest to cut. 

3. Do not permit fires to run rampant through the woods. It kills 

the little trees and checks the growth of the big ones. 

4. Do not permit extensive grazing in the woodlot. If more pasture 

is needed, clear-cut the best land and sow to grass. You 
can't raise good grass and good timber on the same ])iece of land. 

5. Use the same energy and business sense in selling a crop of trees 

as you would in selling a crop of apples. Know how much you 

34 



182 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

have and about how much it is worth. If you can't get your 
price, hold on, as your woodlot keeps on growing in bulk and 
value while you sleep. 

REFERENCES 

"The r'arm Wocxllot." C'licynoy and Wcntling. 

"Principles of llMinlliiiK Woodlots." Graves. 

" Principlt's of American Forestry." (Jrcen. 

Canadian Dcpt. of AKriculf lire Hullctin 2()!t "Farm Forestry." 

r. S. Dcpt. of Auriculturc, Forest iService, Hulletins: 

42. "The Woodlot." 

r->2. "Forest riantinR." 
I'. S. Dppt. of .\p-iculturc, Forest Service, Circulars: 

it?. "The Tiinlier Supply of the V. S." 
117. "Preservation Treatment f)f Fence Posts." 
1;}S. "Sunj;estions to W Dodlot Owners in Ohio Valley RcRion." 
U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture, Ycax-Hook 1914. "The Natiooal Forests and the Farmer." 



CHAPTER 16 

Beautifying Home Grounds 

By a. W. Cowell 
In charge of Landscape Gardening, The Pennsylvania State College 

How ridiculous would be the man who proceeded to build his house by 
first buying up a lot of lumber, bricks, pipes and paint, and then going 
ahead to put them together without first having a very definite working 
plan! Too often that is the way the home surroundings are arranged and 
ornamented — and don't they appear so? Whether of houses or homes, 
which is a broader term and includes the nouse and all its immediate 
surroundings, it is essential to good results to have a definite working plan 
and stick to it. If you cannot plan it yourself, you will save time and money 
by obtaining expert advice. 

The Survey. — To make such a plan for the grounds, first measure up 
the boundaries of the area and note all the features contained therein, 
including buildings, standing trees with their approximate spread, steep 
banks, rocks, swampy places and other natural features, besides roads and 
walks. Next, indicate the fine views and the views of undesirable character 
that should be eliminated. This accomplished, you are ready to plan 
changes and alterations and record your desires and ideals. Using an 
ordinary foot ruler, adopt an eighth or a sixteenth of an inch to represent a 
foot of your actual measurements and thus accurately draw on paper the 
survey you have made. Draw the new scheme on the same scale. It is 
likely that practical and ornamental considerations will be thought of 
together in this way. This study of the place as a whole should aim at a 
systematic arrangement, an effective appearance, and provide for conve- 
nience and comfort. Beautification should start back in the practical first 
arrangement of buildings, roads, paths, windbreaks and screens, and not 
be confined to the little patch of ornamented front lawn. 

Planning for Convenience. — Speaking of the farmhouse, one located 
upon the north side of an east and west public road will most nearly 
approach the ideal in matters of arrangement of parts. The house should 
stand not less than 150 nor more than 400 feet from the road, somewhere 
near the center of the farm lands; for all operations begin and end at the 
house, and it should, therefore, be most conveniently centered. It should 
face the south. Behind it at a distance of about 150 feet, or less, if fire 
hazard is minimized, may stand the barns and other service buildings 
arranged perhaps most conveniently for work around a hollow square or 

183 



184 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



l)!irn court. A windhrcak ujx)!! tho wost and north of tliis Rroup of Itiiild- 
injis, wliil(^ slicltcriiin tliciii, will likewise protect the iioiise and home garden 
and orchard from j)revailinii; winds. To reach this court, the entrance drive 
wouUl pass the house, preferably upon the west side, but not nearer than 
fifty feet^a little spur beinp; jirovidcd from it for the house \'isitor8. For 
convenience, arranj^e the huiidiiifis with the chicken iiouse nearest the 
kitchen, and for comfort place tiie ho^ pen or other more obnoxious neces- 
sity farthest to tliu uortheuat. 




A CofTV'ENlENT AN*I> AlTUAiTlNK 1■'.M<M^^TKAH.' 

Provide a vopetable pardon, liedped in if |)()ssilil(\ very near the house 
and let it be tastefully laid out and contain the small fruits such asi-urrants. 
rasi^berries, strawberries, grapes, asparagus and rhubarb; ])ossibly dwarf 
fruit trees as well as kitchen vegetables and hardy Mowers for cutting. 
Such a garden need not, in fact, it .should not, be n-legated to the back of 
the place, l)ut may lie toward the front road and form the east side of the 
remaining area of the house lawn. All <»f this makes for convenience of 
ojxjration of the farm j)Iant and affords opportunity to ornament it with the 
greatest ease and effectiveness. But it is only an ideal, and most places are 

• Couitcay of Doubleday, Pago & Co., Garden City, N. V. From " Farm Management," by Curd. 



BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 185 

very unlike it. Others may profit by such a picture and it will give them 
something to work toward along the line of home ornamentation. 

Formal Ornamentation. — Before planning and planting for ornamenta- 
tion, have a landscape ideal. If the place is in the city surrounded by 
straight streets, shade trees in avenue rows, massive architecture and other 
conventions of one kind or another, the formality of straight walks, terraced 
lawns, clipped trees and bushes, and even architectural gardens and statu- 
ary is quite in keeping. The object is to provide a setting appropriate 
to the building and in harmony with its environment. Formal landscape 
treatment requires expert knowledge beyond the scope of this chapter. 
Simple ''old-fashioned" flower gardens with box-bordered paths, and rose 
gardens with grass walks laid out in simple geometrical fashion can be 
successfully designed by the amateur, but they should be set away by them- 
selves and in close relation to the house or other buildings, or else isolated 
and secluded from any general view. 

Informal Ornamentation. — For farm homes in the open country it is 
much more effective and harmonious to arrange the home grounds with 
naturally sloping lawns, convenient curving paths and trees and shrubs 
grown in their natural form in groups and masses. The simplicity of 
nature's masses of foliage as seen in copses and fence rows, of her trees 
standing in splendid dignity alone or in groups of soft outline; her wood 
edges that are irregular in outline and of material of different heights 
rising from the ground line to high trees of the background; her colors, so 
subdued and so gracefully blended together— these should be our ideals. 
A close observation of natural landscape in general, and little bits here and 
there in particular, may properly instruct us in the proper arrangement of 
the simple home grounds as regards the planting. Very few homes depend 
for their charm upon their natural surroundings. More often is all natural 
beauty destroyed when man takes possession and adapts the land 
to his economic necessity. But hints for the changes and for the 
embellishment as well should be taken from the place itself and its 
environment if it is to be in harmony with its site and become what 
we call "charming." 

In the plan, considerations of convenience rule, but beauty may be 
served also. The paths, which are not in themselves things of beauty, 
however well constructed they may be, should if possible be kept out of 
the center of the picture, and should not divide the open lawn more than 
necessary. They should pass from house to road toward the side of great- 
est travel, which satisfies the consideration of convenience while also 
creating a graceful curve in course of the path and leaving unbroken the 
central area. Do not interrupt any path by a flower bed, flag pole or 
fountain, except in pleasure gardens, and do not cause its course to become 
circuitous and tiresome in order merely to introduce curves. Where the 
distance is less than fifty feet, introduce no deviation from a perfectly 
straight course. Walks should not be lined by ribbons of flower beds, but 




ArcbiUK-t, D Knlckcrbacker, F. A. I. A. 



186 



BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 



187 



a few good specimens or a group of bushes or a tree may properly stand in 
the bend of a path. 

Lawn Planting. — The lawn also should serve the considerations of 
practicability with beauty. It should therefore be rather open and 
unbroken. It should be somewhat enclosed by a frame of shrubbery, but 
it must not, without defeating both considerations, be planted all over 
with trees and bushes standing alone. This is a "spotty," not effective 
use of material and is hard to maintain. Arrange the bushes — they may 
be wild ones taken from the Avoodside, flowering kinds from the nursery- 
man, or both — planted in groups together, in bordering beds at sides of 





' ■■- #V kl\-\c ■- 


-4^ 'W m A- A*' i.m ^-4 


fe 




■%"- '^►\fr*'/'l*- -^ 








ft 


^■# 









A Desirable Method of Planting Daffodils, Showing the Bulbs Before 

Covering. 



the lawn area. Such a bed should be dug over, no grass should be main- 
tained between bushes, and its outline against the lawn planned in long, 
flowing curves like that of the native woodland. Set the tall-growing 
species generally toward the center or rear of the bed, allow the bushes 
to grow together in a natural way, cut out the dead wood, but do not trim 
them into rounded formal shapes. There should be a bed made against 
the base of the house and other buildings. Plant this with shrubs of a 
moderate height of growth and of good bushy habit. More homes look 
bare and uninteresting, almost inhospitable, because of the lack of this 
planting which lends a warming influence to the building, than from any 



188 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



other roast)!!. Against u!iattractive objects or views noted in the preH!n- 
inai\v survey sliouid of course lie an-anmed a heavy j)hmtation. It may take 
on a little dilYeient chaiacter and contain !nany tires, especially the smaller 
growing kinds, as well as evergreens and closely planted shrubs. Do not 
forget the softening influence of clinging viiies in helj)ing to hai'monize 
houses and landscajjc and to afTord privacy to i)orches and service buildings. 
Shade trees do not clothe the earth and in this dissertation are h'ft to the 
last for the reason that shrubbeiy and vines and grass are all-important 
in home ornamentation; shade trees are not so often forgotten or so badly 
used by the amateur planter. Arrange them in groups, not rows, of difTer- 
ent species, and for lawn specimens, end(>avor to |)reserve the lower limbs. 
Street and roadside trees are of a different ideal. 




Hyacintji HkI).' 



Use of Flowers. — The »iso of flowers and flower ho(h in linme orna- 
mentation is not to be discouraged, although it harbors nuich danger in 
chances of introducing colors and material diflicult to place and to har- 
monize with most natural landscape. If the advice be confined to that 
type of flowers called "old-fashioned" hardy plants, the matter is simi)li- 
fied. They add chaiin to most shrubberies and lawns when i)lanted along 
in front of the shrub beds, arranged in and out among the shrubs. The 
other class of flowers known as "bedding i)lants," which includes gera- 
niums, cannas, coleus, .salvia and so forth, is more difficult to blend, more 
foreign to simple jilaces and moi-e predominant in its color note. Such 
bedding can be best used directly against the house, but never in l>eds, 
stars, ere.seents ;ind bologna sausage shapes, in the middle of the lawn. 



• Courtcay of The CQuntr>-«id«' M «gniinc, New York City. 



BEAUTIFYING HOME GROUNDS 1S9 

and seldom in front of shrubbery, as effectively or so practically as hardy 
perennials of the other class. 

These are all principles and ideals to observe in drawing a plan for 
home ornamentation. As to detail, each place is a problem unto itself, 
to be solved with due regard to two services — convenience of use and land- 
scape charm. Nature is a good instructor in principles. From her exam- 
ples in field and wood we learn of the "open center" of lawn with borders 
of massed foliage, of the beauty in flowing, rounded outline, both of foliage 
and of ground. We cannot copy nature, but we can and should derive 
much inspiration and many ideas in the uses of trees, shrubs, vines, flowers 
and grasses, and how to combine them into good groups and masses. A 
few uses and combinations follow. They are merely catalogued. Perhaps 
they will suggest details in the comprehensive plan. 

SUGGESTED MATERIALS 

Street Trees for roadside or driveway should consist of one species upon one road, but 
different species upon different roads. 
Maples. — Sugar, Red, Norway, distances, 45-35-40 feet. 
Oaks. — Red, Pin, Scarlet, Mossy Cup, distances, 45-30-35 feet. 
Elm.— American, the ideal American tree, distances, 45 to 60 feet. 
Linden. — American Basswood, European or Crimean, distances, 45-35-32 feet. 
Plane. — European (or Oriental), distance, 35 feet. 
Ash. — American white, distance, 35 feet. 
Gingko. — Chinese Maidenhair Tree (narrow streets only), distance, 25 feet. 

Trees for lawn 'planting, besides those mentioned for street use : 
Oaks. — White, Enghsh, Golden, Pyramidal. 

Maple. — Weir's Cut-leaf, Purple, Norway, Cork-barked, Tartarian. 
Elm. — Cork-barked, Scotch, Japanese. 
Linden. — Silver, Weeping Silver, Broad-leaved. 
Mountain Ash. 
Empress Tree (Paulonia) . 
Larch. — European and Japanese. 
Bald Cypress. — An excellent. 
Magnolias. — Chinese species. 
Buckeye. 
Japanese Maples. 

Pine. — White, Swiss, Dwarf Mountain, Austrian. 
Fir. — Douglass, Colorado Silver. 
Spruce. — Englemann, Colorado Blue, Eastern, Norway. 

For screen planting, to obscure objectionable views: 
Poplars. — Lombardy, Bolles Silver, White. 
Willows. — White, Laurel-leaved. 
Mulberry.— White. 

Maple. — Weir's Cut-leaf, Water or Box Elder. 
Birch.— White, Red. 
Ailanthus. 
Spruce. — Norway. 
Pine. — Austrian, Scotch, White. 
Arborvitse. — Westera. 

Shrubs for screen: 

Sumacs, Privet, Nine-bark, Elder, Alders, Dogwood, Witch Hazel, Red Bud, Shad 
Bush, Bush Honeysuckle. 



190 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Shrubs suitable for the base of the liouse: 

Japancso Bnrhrrry, Thunhrrps, W.-iforor's and Van Iloiittos' S|)irra, Ho(l-T\viuKJ'«l 
DoRwood {.('. iiUhi), Dwarf Driitzia, Hydran^fa, Kcrria, I^-siH'd«'za, St. John's 
Wort, HcKi'l's I'rivot, Japanese Row iliugosa), Snowlx-rry, Str|)licnandni, 
Mahonia, Khododendron, azaleas, EulaliuH (ornanientul ClraKses), and hardy 
fwrt'onials. 

Shrubs suitable for general border plantings: 

BlooniinK in early sprinp: Anielanchier, azaleas, daphne, ealyeanthus, forsythia, 

eercis, corniis mas, cydonia, lindera, lonieera franrantisxinia, almond. 
HluominK in late summer: Althea, haccharis, aralia s|)inosa, < aryopteris, eephel- 

anthus. clethra, hy<irannea, hypcrieum, lesjM'deza, Sainhiicus canadensis, 

spirea lUimalda, tamarix, vi(»'X annus eastus, rosa runosJi- 
For winter IxTries: Hosa ru^o.sa, herheris, eorylus, erateaKHs. euonymus, ilex, 

eeplielanfhus, eallicarpa, physocarpos, syniphoriearpos, vihurnum opulu.s, 

lijjustrum, rliodotypos. 
For winter bark color: — C'ornus alba, stolonifera, lutoa, Kuonymus alat:i, kerria, 

clcagnus, tamarix. 

Suitable hedges: 

Japan barberry, privet-california, common and for untrimmed hedne, HeRcIlianum. 
Flowering hedjie. — Spirea van houttei, Althea, rosa rugosa, cydonia, deutzia 

gracilis, lilacs. 
Protective hedge. — Harberry, rhamnus, erat:egus, gleditsia. 
Evergreen hedge.— American arborvito-, hemlock, white pine (for a broad hedge), 

Norway spruce. 

Suitable for vnndbrcaks: 

Evergreens. — Norway spruce, Douglas spruce, Scotch pine, Austrian pine, arbor- 

vitie. 
Deciduous. — Poplars, willows, box elder, larch, birch, ailanthus, mulberry, osage 

orange, and other tree species set out about ten feet apart to form a belt 

at least twenty feet wide. 

REFERENCES 

"The Practical Flower Garden." Helen Ely. 
"A Woman's Handy C'rarrlen." Helen Ely. 
"(lardening for Beginners." Cook. 
"LaniJHcape Cianiening." Waugli. 
"LandscafK' Gardening." Ma>'uard. 



CHAPTER 17 

Window Gardening 

By a. W. Cowell 
In charge of Landscape Gardening, The Pennsylvania State College 

The prime requisites in raising plants in the house are proper soil, 
good drainage, equable temperature, the correct amount of sunlight and 
regular care in watering and re-potting. Contrary to superstition, no 
better geraniums can be grown in a tomato can than in a piece of fine 
pottery. So you may choose your own receptacle so long as it fits the 
plant it is to house — being neither too large nor too small. 

Drainage. — Good drainage is brought about by having an opening 
in the bottom of the receptacle — at least half an inch in diameter, and 
for very large jars or tubs, three or more openings. Over these lay pieces 
of broken pottery to prevent the dirt from falling through. Good drain- 
age allows any excess of moisture to escape and provides for free circula- 
tion of air through the soil. This prevents it from becoming soggy and 
sour. 

Soil and Exposure. — Good soil is often difficult to secure. Many 
planters take chances and use what is handiest. This is a mistake. Even 
the blackest woods earth is not always most suitable to use. Soil which is 
clayish and bakes is not good; neither is light, sandy soil. A combina- 
tion of the three t^qoes, however, is satisfactory, and a soil recommended 
by a practical florist is one made up as follows: 

Sldm off the sod thinly from a bit of pasture land and take the loam 
directly under the sod for the ground matter of your soil ; mix together 32 
quarts of this loam with 4 quarts of black woods earth and 4 quarts of sharp 
sand. For the plant-food, mix together 8 quarts of decomposed manure, 1 
quart of air-slaked lime and 1 quart of ground bone (bone meal). Now mix 
and mix and 7nix these two piles together, sift through a sieve of a quarter- 
inch mesh, and you have a soil suitable for the most "persnickity" of 
plant tastes. 

As to light, for flowering plants generally, a south or east window is 
best. Some foliage plants and ferns like the sunless windows or interior 
of a room. Their numbers are few, however, and this is unfortunate. 

Method of Potting. — To pot up the plants, cover the drainage material 
in bottom of the flower pot with an inch or two of the soil prepared as above 
described. Then place the plant roots flatwise into the soil, holding the 
stem erect while soil is sprinkled in until the pot is nearly full, and press 
down firmly but not too hard. Now sprinkle a light covering of soil {not 

191 



i:»-2 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



(irined in) over top of the pot to prevent excessive evaporation and drench 
with water. 

A phiiit which has made a vigorous growili may nood more root room. 
It fills lip the receptacle and lu'coiiies "pot hound," as the Ihtrist says. It 
should he "shifted up" to a i)ot the next size or two sizes larger. There i.s 
failure in i)ots lar}j;er than necessary. Reverse the i)lant with tlio j)alni of 
tlie left hand against tlie top of the pot and the stem passing througli the 

fingers and with a sliglit 
tap the j)(»t may he re- 
moved. 'I'he i)all of 
roots should he put into 
the new cjuartcrs, set- 
ting the old surface 
ahout level with the 
top of the new pot. 
( ' li i n k in new soil 
around the ball of roots 
and then water th(> 
plant plenteousl}'. In 
potting up plants from 
the sununer garden — 
g(>raniums, snaj)- 
dragon, ten weeks' 
stocks, petuni:us, scarlet 
sage — set them in a 
shaded corner for a few 
days and si/ritKjc the 
tops daily before plac- 
ing in the sunny win- 
dow. 

Nothing is more 
unsightly than a lot of 
"leggy" old plants or 
puny weak ones. 
(Jrow few plants and 
liave kinds which will 
Make cuttings and keej) the i)lants vigorous and shaj)ely. Cut 
back the old plants, remembering that flowers are on new wood, and that 
it is "ejisior" for an old i)lant to grow a lot of new shoots tlian to carry 
leaves on the tips of long, lanky branches. So cut the old jilants back 
vigorously <»nce in a while. 

In select ing plants at the florist's for home window gardening, do not be 
interested in th()s<> of his hottest house; choose plants from a night tempera- 
ture of about 50 degrees. Plants like equable temperatures a.s well as 

* Courteay of Tbo Countryside Mogaaine, N. Y. 




Removing tue Plant fuom Old Pot. 



thrive. 



WINDOW GARDENING 19.3 

regularity of other conditions. Do not allow the room temperature to get 
above 70 degrees in daytime nor below 50 degrees at night. 

Watering. — The watering of plants is largely a matter of judgment. 
It is offered as good advice that a plant should be watered when it needs it, 
and contrariwise 7iot when it does not need it. Water copiously once in two 
days rather than a little each clay, unless the earth has become dried out. 
This can be determined by tapping the flower pot with the finger nail; a 
clear, ringing sound will indicate dryness; a dull sound shows a damp 
condition and water not required. Watering at the roots is not sufficient, 
strange to say. Plants respond also to a wetting of the leaves. This can 




A Well-proportioned Fern.^ 

be accomplished by turning them half over in a tub and syringing the tops. 
Do not allow the sun to play upon wet leaves; it may injure them severely. 
Feeding Plants. — Pot-grown plants respond to "feeding up" — the 
application once in a while of liquid manure — which is merely stable 
manure and water allowed to stand a few days and strained. Apply the 
liquid once a month for two successive waterings. Bone meal worked in at 
the top of a pot is slow in its action, but beneficial. There are prepared 
plant-foods which are valuable and convenient, but more expensive than 
these two. 



1 Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, N. Y. 



I^t 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Ferns and Foliage Plants. — Plants should fit the purpose for which 

they arc iiit(>ii(l(Ml. If a gnMMi and growinK plant for house decoration 
(huing tin- winter months, one tliat can ho nio\0(l from place to j)lace, is 
wanted, the aspidistra, dracirna, cocos and other palms, asparajjus plumo- 
sus, rul)l>er plant, auraucaria (Norfolk Island Pine), and with restrictions, 
the Boston, Scott's and crested ferns should be chosen. Maidenhair ferns 
do not Kciierally succeed with house culture, but of them all Adiautum 
gracilliniinn, cuncatuin, and ('(ipHlu.s-Vcncri.s are best. For the table, 
small ferns in a fern dish are a.s good as anything except the pots of spring 
bulbs as they are brought in from the cellar. The fern dish should have a 

porous earthen dish in which 
to grow the plants, regardh^ss 
of the ornamental character 
of the dish in which it re.sts. 
Ferns, purchitsed as '*tal)le 
ferns," are but baby i)ig ferns, 
and are good to use in a fern 
dish. As they become larger, 
they should be transplanted 
to larger jKjts or to a fern box 
and i)laced in a sunless win- 
dow. 

Flowering Plants. ■ — For 
the sunny window flowering 
plants may i)e used. A shelf 
on castors is the best stand, 
as it may be turned around 
occasionally. A box the 
length of the window and 
from six to eight indues deep 
may be usetl. Set the i)lant 
jars up an inch above the 
l)ottom of the tray in order 
that they may not be too wet. F'or ])lants there is a good variety: 
Abutilon, flowering begonias; fuchiits, swainsomia, billbergia, (>U(Mr 
i.sta, geraniums (especially "CMiristnuus Pink"), euphea, loi)elia, oxalis 
(also for hanging biusket), cyclamen (in .shaded spot), Chinese, starr>', 
and "Baby" jjrimroses, stevia, Marguerites, candytuft, alyssmn, agera- 
tum, heliotrope, i)ouvardia, balsam ("touch-me-not"), cactus, and ])Iants 
mentioned later which may \k\ l)rought from the outdoor .sununer gardens. 
Among bulbs, amaryllis, calla and the so-called "Dutch buli)s" are prol>- 
ably the most satisfactory' of all flowering i)lants for the house. A dozen 
Paper white narcissus may be grown in an eight-inch deep glass dessert- 
dish half full of sand, above which the bulbs rest, held lirmly in place by 

• Courtoay of IIoiwo nnd Ciardon, Publi»hc<J by UolK<rt J. McBridc A Co., N. Y. 




A LAiuiE Boston Feun.' 



WINDOW GARDENING 



105 



pebbles sprinkled in among them and covered with water. Freesias, hya- 
cinths, tulips, daffodils, single narcissus, crocus, even the Easter Lily in 
any of the many named varieties listed in seedsmen's catalogues, may 
also be grown successfully by the amateur. These Dutch bulbs should 
be purchased in September, and excepting freesias, Paper white narcissus 
and Roman hyacinths, which may be started at once, planted and put 
away for about six weeks to 
form roots before any top 
growth is allowed. Set 
them in a cool place — 
buried in coal ashes in a 
corner of the cellar or out- 
of-doors in a box buried in 
cinders for one inch above 
the pots and protected from 
freezing too hard by a layer 
of straw, leaves and boards. 
Keep them moist and cool. 
They may be brought into 
flower a pot at a time and 
furnish pleasure from 
Thanksgiving to April — a 
gamut of color and delight- 
ful fragrance. 

Plant Lice. — The most 
prevalent insect pest at- 
tacking house plants is the 
plant douse, a little green 
insect feeding upon the 
under side of leaves and 
tender shoots. Another 

form is black. Both forms are combated by tobacco concoctions obtain- 
able ready-made at the seed store; also, the plants may be fumigated with 
burning tobacco, dusting the leaves with tobacco dust, and by spraying 
the leaves with soap in solution. The insect must be ivet with the solu- 
tion, so care must be exercised in spraying to reach the under side of the 
leaves. Another common pest is the brown scale which attaches itself 
firmly to branch or leaf and resists water and fumigation. It can be 
removed by brushing the leaves and by kerosene emulsion, which, how- 
ever, may injure a tender plant. 




Btilbs Grown in Water-tight Receptacle.^ 



REFERENCE. 



"Manual of Gardeinng." Bailey. 



> Courtesy of The Countryside Magazine, N . Y. 



PART II 

PLANT DISEASES, INSECT ENEMIES 
AND THEIR CONTROL 



(197) 



CHAPTER 18 

Diseases of Garden and Orchard Crops; and Their Remedies 

By Dr. Mel. T. Cook 
Plant Pathologist, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station 

When any of the various parts of a plant are not doing their work 
properly the plant is said to be diseased. The disease frequently causes 
poor growth or poor fruit, or both; and in case of our cultivated plants, an 
unsatisfactory crop. 

The most important causes of plant diseases are fungi, bacteria, slime 
moulds, parasitic flowering plants, insects, mites, nematodes, unsatisfactory 
soil, too much or too small amount of moisture, unfavorable temperature, 
gas fumes and smoke. Some plant diseases occur for which there are no 
satisfactory explanations. 

Plant diseases may be detected by characteristic symptoms which 
readily distinguish the disease upon the healthy plants. The most common 
of these symptoms are: (a) a discoloration of the foliage and sometimes 
of the new growths; (6) wilting, frequently followed by yellowing and 
browning; (c) dropping of the foliage; (d) the formation of spots on foliage, 
stems or roots; (e) perforation of the foliage commonly called "shot hole;" 
(/) variegation of the foliage commonly called mosaic; (g) the "damping 
off" or dying which is especially common on seedling plants; (h) the blight 
or dying of leaves, twigs or stems; (i) the dwarfing of parts; (j) the increase 
in size of parts; (k) formation of galls, pustules or corky growths; (I) 
cankers on fruit, stems or roots; (m) abnormal fruits; (n) the formation 
of masses of small shoots called "witches' brooms;" (o) the curling of leaves; 
(p) the formation of leaf rosettes; (q) abnormal root growths commonly 
known as hairy root; (r) exudations of gums, resins, etc.; (s) the rotting of 
fruit, stems or other parts; and (t) sunburn of fruits and foliages. 

Some diseases of the soil, such as "damping off," are very severe in 
seed-beds and in greenhouses, and can be controlled by sterilizing the soil. 
Diseases that occur in the soil in fields are frequently overcome by a rota- 
tion of crops, by improved drainage and sometimes by stimulating the 
plants with suitable fertilizer. 

Many diseases are controlled by spraying, but in most cases spraying 
is used for the protection of plants against disease and not for curing them ; 
therefore, it is a kind of insurance and must always be supplied in advance 
of the appearance of the disease. Spraying cannot be conducted in a 
satisfactory manner unless the grower is sufficiently familiar with the disease 

199 



200 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

to uiidiTstaiKl when, why ami liow to give tlic lu'ccssary treatments. In 
recent years it lias been found possible to overcome some (li.sea.ses bj' 
growing plants that are di.sea.se-resistant and, therefore, do not nectl 
treatments. 

In this chapter only the most common and important plant disea«»s 
in the United States and Canada are considered. Brief descriptions and 
conden.sed directions for treatment are given. 

Farmers should always rej)ort the jjresencc of di.sejise on crops to 
the agricultural experiment station of the state in which they reside, and 
a.sk advice as to treatment. The treatment of some diseiuses will vary 
somewhat, dei)endent upon the part of the country in which it occurs. 

APPLE 

Bitter Rot or Ripe Rot (ClomcreUa rujomaculans [Berk.], Spaul and 
von Schrenk;. — This rot is not confined to ripe apples and is noi always 
bitter. It attacks both fruit and twig and occurs in orchard and in storage. 
On the fruit it ap])ears as a brown, sometimes black, circular spot which 
gradually cnlaiges. It may be soft and wet or dry and corky, depending 
on variety of the fruit and age of the infection. The spore pustules start 
from the center of the spot and gradually sjjread over the surface, usually 
forming rather definite circles. They are i)inkish in color and watery and 
spread the disease from fruit to fruit. Large spots become dejiressed and 
wrinkled and the entire fruit eventually becomes rotten, then dry and 
shrunken, and is finally known a.s a "mummJ^" 

The di.seasc may be carried from year to year on these nnnnnjies and 
also on the stems. On tlu^ twigs and branches it causes rough spots known 
as cankers. These cankers are rough and vary in size with age. The 
fungous sjwres from these infect the growing croj). 

Trealnwnl. — Hemove and burn the mununied fiuit and twig cankers. 
Spray with lime-sulplun- before the buds open. After the petals fall, .spray 
with self-boiled lime-sulphur or Bordeaux mixtui-e. (See spray tal)le for 
pear. ) 

Black Rot {Splurrups-is maloruni, Peck). — The rotten spot on the fruit 
is usually blacker and drier than the bitter rot sjjot and can l)e readily 
distinguished by the numerous black dots or pajjilhe from which m:Ls.ses of 
black spores emerge. 

It al.so causes a stem canker in which the twigs become swollen, 
rougli and black. On the trunk and larger branches it causes peculiar 
cankers. On young trees it cau.ses a blight which is .soniewhat similar to 
th(^ fire blight of the pear, but which can be readily distinguished by the 
presence of munerous small l>lack dots. It also attacks the leaves, causing 
I)eculiar spots frequently spoken of as "frog eye." 

Tnahnrnt. — Same as for bitter rot. 

Brown Rot. — I'sually not severe on the a])plc. (See Peach.) 

Storage Rots. — The rots which occur in storage may be due to the 



DISEASES OF CROPS 



201 



preceding fungi or to a number of others. Thorough spraying of the 
orchards, careful handhng of the fruit, regulation of temperature and 
humidity will reduce these rots to a minimum. 

Scab {Venturia incequalsis [Cke.], Wint.). — This is one of the most 
injurious diseases of the apple. It causes a dry, black spotting of the 
fruit which is well characterized by the name ''scab." As the season 

advances the seriously 
infected fruits become 
distorted and cracked. 
Affected fruits are es- 
pecially susceptible to 
storage rots. 

The disease also 
attacks the leaves and 
twigs, causing a more 
or less thick, velvet- 
like covering, varying 
in color from olive- 
green to black. 

Treatment. — Spray 
with concentrated lime- 
sulphur (5 quarts in 50 
gallons of water) or 
Bordeaux mixtm-e when 
the pink shows, but 
just before the blossom 
opens. 

Blotch (Phyllosticta 
solitaria, Ell. and Ev.). 
— This disease causes 
dark, irregular blotches 
on the fruit and, when 
severe, causes a crack- 
ing. In the older spots 
a number of small, 
black, fruiting dots are 
formed. It also attacks the twigs, causing small tan-colored cankers. 
In the old cankers the bark becomes cracked and roughened. 

Treatment. — Spray with lime-sulphur or Bordeaux mixture. (See 
table for apples, pears and quinces.) 

Rust {Gymnosporangium macropus, Link.). — This disease attacks 
foliage, fruit and twig, causing a yellowish orange-colored spot which 
is not readily confused with other diseases. On the upper surface these 
spots show numerous small yellow pustules becoming black. On the 




Apple Scab.^ 
Photograph by Prof. M. A. Blake. 



> Courtesy of New Jersey Agricultural Station. 



202 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



under surface, in the late stages, are produced small, fringed, cup-like 
structures containing Rroat nuusscs of sp<jros. Those s]Kjres will ncjt re-in- 
fect the ai)i)le, but are carried by the wind to neiglil>oring red cedar trees, 
where they cause the formation of the familiar cedar aiij^lcs. 

Thtvse large brown cedar aj^jjlos of the cedar, occurring in the spring, 
produce gelatinous, horn- 
like projections, bearing 
nijisses of spores. These 
sjKjres are borne by the 
wind to the a])i)lo tree, 
which is re-infectetl with 
the disease. 

Treatment. — Remove 
the cedar apjilos, or still 
better, remove the cedar 
trees. Si)raying the apjile 
trees as for scab will re- 
duce the disease to some 
extent. 

Fire Blight.— Sec 
Pear. 

Other Foliage Spots 
and Twig Cankers. —There 
arc leaf spots and twig 
cankers due tootliercauses 
which cannot be enumer- 
ated in this brief discus- 
sion. These diseases arc 
all more or less injurious, 
but can l>e controlled by 
the regular spraying 
methods and sanitation. 

Mildew (S})harotlicea 
7/<a//[I)uli}J,]iurr.). — Tliis 
fungus grows on the sur- 
face of the leaf, causing a 
grayish or wliitisli c<nering. Usually it is not severe and can be con- 
trolled by the regular s])raying or by si)raying with jM>ta.ssium suli)liide. 

Crown Gall and Hairy Root [Bacterium tumefacien^, Smith and Town- 
send). — These two di.seases are tlue to the same organism. The crown galls 
or root galls occur at the crown or on the roots and sometimes on the 
stems. They are more or less spherical, with irregular, roughentnl surfaces. 
Some are hard and others soft, but they ixn^ all probably due to the simie 
cause. They are most severe on red nusj)berries, are veiy injurious to jKnich 

> Courtcay of PcDoaylvAai* Africulturftl Eiperiinent Station, St«U> College, Pa. 




Ari'i-K Ti{KB wirn 'I'ypical Collar Bught.* 

Showing jjrojHT inctlKxl of cutfinR hack into healthy 
bark Ix-fori' treating with ]i:iint. 



DISEASES OF CROPS 



203 



trees and more or less injurious to apple trees, dependent somewhat on the 
varieties. They also occur on pears, quinces, cherries, plums, grapes, 
roses and many other plants. The diseased tissues extend throughout a 

considerable part 
of the plant which 
makes cutting off 
of these malforma- 
tions a very uncer- 
tain treatment. 

The hairy root 
appears under- 
ground as a mass 
of fibrous roots and 
above ground as 
warty knots on 
trunk and branch, 
and is sometimes 
mistaken for cank- 
ers, due to other 
causes. 

Treatment. — 
Theorganismwhich 
causes this disease 
lives in the soil for 
several years, and 
cannot be eradi- 
cated except by a 
long rotation of 
crops. It is unwise 
to set orchards, 
especially peach 
orchards, in old 
berry fields or other 
fields known to be 
infected or to use 
berries as inter-row 
crops in orchards. Nursery stock known to be infected should be de- 
stroyed. 

PEAR 
Blight {Bacillus amylovorus [Burr], De Toni). — This very familiar 
disease causes the leaves and young twigs to die and blacken very much as 
though injured by fire. .These dead leaves hang on the trees during the 
winter instead of falling m the autumn, as is the case with healthy leaves. 
The disease also attacks the branches, causing black, sunken cankers from 

1 Courtesy of The Field, New York. 




Young Apple Tree from Nursery.^ 
Showing the disease known as Root Gall. 



204 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



which a sticky, milky fluid oozes in the early spring, and from which the 
discaso is si)rca(l, by moans of insects, to the oi)cninK Mossoms. If the 
weather conditions arc favoraljJe the blossoms and fruit spurs die and 
Ijlacken and very frequently considerable quantities of the young fruit are 
destroyed. The disease also occurs on the apple, crab, hawthorn and 
other related trees. 

Treat mint. — Prune and burn the diseased twigs on young trees; 
clean out the cankers on old trees, dii)ping the knife from time to time in 
formaldehyde (1 jmrt in 20 parts water). Paint these wounds with formal- 
tlehyde and th(Mi with white leatl ])aint t)r coal tar. Do not over-fertilize 
or over-c-uitivate the oichard. 

Sriuw Tahlk roH Aim-lks, Peaics a.\u Qiinx-es. 



Time. 


Materuu 


Pl-BTOdl. 


I. Before the buda swell. 


('oncentrutr<i comniorciul Umc-«ulpliur, 1 port in parts water or 
home-made concentrated lime-sulpbur diluted to a specific gravity 
of 1.03. 


For furgcous dis- 
eases and for San Josi 
scale. 


2. \S Boon B8 the fldWCT 

buds show the pink color. 


Concentrated rommereial limivnilphur, diluted to 5 quarts in 50 
ealliiiLS of wulcr or 1-411, or home-maile ronreiitratol limo-sulpbur 
dilutol to HiHrific Kravity of l.(X)7. (Bordcau.v mixture can l>e used 
for this treatment.) 




3. Immediately after pet- 
als fall. 


Same as 2. 


Same as 2. 


4. Ten days after blos- 
soms faU. 


Sanir as 2. 


Suncas2. 



Two additional sprayinKS are frequently necessary for fall and winter varieties. 

Arbenical iwisons for chewing insects and tobacco extracts for sucking insects may be added to treatments 2 and 3. 



Rust (Cymnosporarujium junipcri-inryiniamic and (!. hhiatlalcanum 
[I). :iM(l II. I, Kern). — Similar to ai)ple rust. 

Scab (, r. piirina, Aderh.). — Similar to a])i)le seal). 

Leaf Spot {Scptoria pyricola, Dcsm.) api)oai-s as numerous small, well- 
defined, angular, ashy-colored spots with minute black dots. It is not often 
severe. 

Leaf Spot (Entomospon'um fnacuhilion, I>ov.) occui-s on the leaf, causing 
small, ciicuiar spots with thill, red centers and dark bordei>!. ^^'hen .'^evere 
it cau.scs the leaves to Ijecome yellow «)r brown and fall. It al.^o attacks 
the fruit, causing spots which are at first red, becoming dark and in severe 
cases causing the fruit to crack. It is carried over the winter t)n the fallen 
leaves. 

Treatment. — This di.sease can be controlled by spraying with Hordeau.x 
mixture, beginning when the leaves are alwut half or two-thirds full grown 
and repeating at intervals of three weeks until four treatments h.ave l>een 
given. 

Rots. — The black rot and brown rot also occur on the ixjar. (Sec 

Apple.) 

Crown Gall. — Sec Apple. 



DISEASES OF CROPS 



205 



QUINCE 

Rust (G. clavipes, C. and P.)- — This disease is very similar to the rusts 
on apples and pears, but is more severe on the fruit and twigs than on either 
of the preceding. It also has the cedar for its alternate host. 

BUght.— See Pear. 

Leaf Spot. — See Pear. 

Rots. — See Apple. 

Crown Gall. — See Apple. 

PEACH 
Brown Rot (Sclerotinia fructigena [Pers.], Schroet.). — This is one of 
the most destructive diseases of the peach. It attacks the fruit as 





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J 



Peaches Entirely Destroyed by Brown Rot.^ 
Showing gray masses of spores of fungus. 

it is approaching maturity, causing it to rot, become brown, soft and use- 
less. The fungus produces an abundance of spores which form a dense 
brown, powdery mass over the fruit. It also attacks the blossoms, causing 
them to die, turn brown and fall soon after opening. It then spreads to the 
twigs, causing death of the young shoots and causing cankers on the older 
branches. 

Treatment. — See spray table for peach. 

Scab or Freckles (Cladosporium carpophilum, Thuem.). — This extremely 
common disease attacks the fruit, causing sooty, black specks or blotches 

iFrom Farmers' Bulletin 440, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 



206 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

which, when severe, may prevent normal ripening and cause the fruit to he 
irregular in shajx) and to crack. 

Tr< (itincnt. — Sec spray table for jM>ach. 

Leaf Curl {I'Jxod.snui (Icforfnans [Hcrk.l I'ckl.), — This very familiar 
and very injurious disea.se causes the loaves to curl, reduces their value to 
the tree and finally causes thorn to fall. With the aiii)earance of the 
second croj) of loavos, the growers frocjuently sui)i)osc the tree to have 
roi'ovorod. However, it has lost in vitality and vigor, which results in a 
reduction or comi)lote loss of the crop. 

Treatment. — Spray with lime-sulphur before the buds open. 

Shot Holes (Cercofipora circumsci.ssa, Sacc, PlujUoslieta cirnimscissa, 
Cke.). — 'J'li('s(i "sh(jt hole" disoasos arc quite common, but readily con- 
trolled by the regular si)raying treatments. 

Another shot hole {Bacterium pruni, Smith) is verj' common in the 
Southern states and especially on Ellx'rtas. It frequently cau.ses the 
foliage to fall in midsummer. It also attacks the fruit, causing a si)otting 
somewhat similar to the scab. It cannot be controlled by sjjraying. 

Crown Gall. — See Apiile. 

Mildew {Sphccrotheca pannosa [Wallr.j, Ix'v.). — Similar to the mildew 
of the a})i)lo. It is of little imiwrtance and can be controlled by the regular 
spray treat mont. (Sec table for poach.) 

Yellows. — The cause of this voiy destructive disease remains a mystery. 
In its earlier stages it causes a premature rijioning of the fruit, accompanied 
by a red blotching over the surface and through the flesh which is usually 
insipid and frequently bitter. (Prematuring may also l)e caused by lx)rers 
or winter injury.) In its later stages it causes the so-called "willowing" 
or formation of slender yollowish-gnm sh(K)ts on the trunk and larger 
branches. The leaves on these shoots are small, narrow and greenish- 
yellow. The foliage is frequently greenish-yellow, but wlien supjiliod with 
nitrogenous fertilizers will not show this character. In its earlier stages, 
one part of the tree may show the disease and the otluM* jiaiis apjKvir 
perfectly healthy, but in fact the entire tree is diseased. It can Ix; trans- 
mitted from tree to tree by contact and to young trees by budding. Buds 
from the ai)i)arently healthy parts of vor>' slightly disoa.'^od tro(\'< will trans- 
mit the disease. Healthy nursor>' stock is of the greatest imiK)rtance. 

Trcatnumi. — Dig and burn the trees as soon as the disea.'^e ai)|x>ars, 
u.sing care to prevent the tree coming in contact with others. Young 
trees can be set in the places from which the old ones were remove*!; the 
disease does not jx^rsist in the soil. The greatest care should 1x3 u.sed in 
the selection of bud wood, to insure its freedom from disoa.^e. 

Little Peach. — The cause of this disease is also unknown, but it is of 
the same nature as yellows. The fruit of disoa.sed trees is small, riix»ns 
late, is inferior in quality, frecjuently insipid and watery. The leaves are 
frecjuently lighter than normal loaves or ycllowi.sh-green and often rollcxl 
and drooping, 
eo 



DISEASES OF CROPS 



207 



Treatment. — Same as for yellows. 

Peach Rosette. — The cause of this disease of the peach in the Southern 
states is also unknown. It is very similar to yellows, but the leaves tend to 
cluster, giving the general appearance of green roses. 

Treatment. — Same as for yellows. 

Spray Table for Peach. 



Time. 


Materul. 


Purpose. 


1. Same as first treatment for apple. (See page 943.) 






2. Just as the husks fall from the small fruit. 


Self-boiled limengulphur. 


For brown rot, scab and 
other diseases. 


3. Three weeks after 2. 


Same as 2. 


Same as 2. 


4. Three weeks after 3, for late varieties. 


Same as 2. 


Same as 2. 


5. Same as 2 for very late varieties. 







Note. — Arsenical poisons may be added to No. 2 for curculio. Tobacco extracts and soap can also be added for suck- 
ing insects. 

PLUM 



Black Knot {Plowrightia morhosa [Schw.], Sacc). 




Black Ivnot on the Cherry. ^ 
Photograph by Prof. J. P. Helyar. 



— This very common 
and well-known dis- 
ease causes swollen 
growths on the 
branches which are 
at first olivaceous in 
color, but finally be- 
come deep black and 
very hard and brit- 
tle. It will spread 
over the greater part 
of a tree, interfere 
with its growth and 
finally cause its 
death, 

Treatrnent. — 
The diseased parts 
should be cut out 
and burned and the 
trees should be 
sprayed with lime- 
sulphur in the spring 
before the opening 
of the buds. (See 
table for plum.) 
Mildew. — See Cherry. Yellows. — See 



Leaf Spot. — ^See Cherry 
Peach. Brown Rot. — See Peach. Crown Gall. — See Apple, 

'Courtesy of New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, 



208 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Spkay Table for Plcm. 


Time. 


Matuual. 


PVKPOSK. 


1. Soiiif uH for upplc and peach. 






2. Immi'tliaU'ly aft4T the ix't-Hk* fall. 


S<-lf-lioilc<(t Ump-Kulphur. 


For lirown rot. 


3. Whrn fru.t a aUiut the Niir of Krocn pcaa. 


Same as 2. 


Sameaa2. 


4. Three weeks after 3. 


SanMM2. 


Suimm2. 



N(rTK. — Anx'niral poisons fur control of curculio nuty be added to No. 2. Tobacco extracts and soap may be added 
fur coutrul of pluul lice. 

CHERRY 

Leaf Spot (CijUnflrosporiuni patti, ]\:irst.). — Tlii.s (lise;i.><o, which is also 
fall('»l "shot, hole," cau.scs tlisroloii'd circular s])<)ts usually with reddish 
or puri^lo Ixjrdcr, eventually iKH'ominjj; hrowu and hreakinp; into a liole and 
often re.sulting in a defoliation of tlic tree. AN'lien .severe it is verj- injurious 
to the grouih and health of the tree. 

Treatment. — S])ray with liine-suli)hur or with Bordeaux mixture. 

Black Knot. — See Plum. 

Crown Gall. — Sec Ajijile. 

Brown Rot. — See Peadi. 

Powdery Mildew {Poduspliara oxyacaniJur [D. ('.], ]\']W.). — Sunilar 
to S. nuili of the ajjple. 

Spray Table for Sweet Cherries. 

1. Tri^fmont namr an first trratraont for applo. 



2. Tn-atinciit saiiio lu wi-ond tn^utinriit fur |K-arh, but idvcn immediately after the petals fall. 
3 Repeat treatment 2 when fruit is almut the siic of small pea. 
4. Kqieat treatment 2 after the fruit is picked. 



CITRUS FRUITS 

Brown Rot (Pi/tlilnri/stis ciiroj)htli(ini, Sm. and Sm.).- This disea.so 
of tlic C'alil'onua fruit is sometimes the cause of heavy los.ses. It is causiMi 
by a fungus which is white in mass. It occurs in the orciiard and jiacking 
houses causing a rot with a ])eculiar rancid odor. ^'eIy slightly infectcnl 
fruits rot during trans|K)rtation. It is most abundant in wet weather or 
on low ground after irrigation. 

Trcalmint. — It is spread by contact and can be controlled l^y u.^^ing a 
heavy straw mulch or cover crop under the trees and by disinfecting the 
fruit in tli(> ])Mcking house. 

Black Rot {Allrrntin'n cilri, Pierce). — This di.scase of the navel orange 
causes a i)remature rii)ening. It usually entei-s tiie fruit through the 
navel, causing an internal rot accom])anied by a reddish color. The 
di.seased fruit should be burned or buried. 

Stem End Rot and Melanose (I'lKftnosi.s cifrl, FawcettV — This dis(>ase 
ia most common on mature packed fruit, causing a circular patch of soft 



DISEASES OF CROPS 209 

rot at the stem end which can be detected by a pressure of the finger even 
though there may be no discoloration. The presence of scale insects and 
warm, damp weather tend to increase the disease. 

This organism also causes the disease known as melanose of the fruit, 
twig and leaf. This form of the disease appears as a raised brownish area 
forming dots, lines and crosses, varying from yellow to brown and black. 
The cutting out of the dead wood is an important factor in the control of 
this disease. 

Other Rots {Penidllium italicum, Wehm., and P. digitatum [Fr.], 
Sacc). — These rots are covered by the fungus and appear as blue moulds. 
They are the causes of heavy losses in transportation. The fungus enters 
the fruits through slight wounds and therefore the fruit should always be 
handled carefully. 

Sooty Mould (Meliola camellice [Catt.], Sacc). — In this case the 
fungus covers the fruit with a black velvety coating which can usually be 
removed. It is not nearly so serious as some other diseases. It really 
grows on the exudations (honey dew) of plant lice and its control depends 
on their destruction. 

Black Pit of the Lemon (Bacterium citriputeale, Sm.). — This disease 
appears as circular or oval, well-defined, reddish-brown, brown or black 
spots or pits on the fruit. They are caused by bacteria which gain entrance 
through wounds. 

Anthracnose or Wither Tip (Colletotrichum glceosporioides, Penz.). — 
This disease attacks the young leaves, twdg tips and fruits. It causes a 
yellowish spotting of the leaves, a withering and dying of the new shoots 
and canker-like spots on the fruit. It is one of the most common diseases 
of the citrus fruits. 

Scab {Cladosporium citri, Mass.). — This very common disease attacks 
leaves, twigs and fruits, causing prominent warty or corky outgrowths. 
The leaves are frequently twisted and twigs are frequently cracked. 

Canker. — This is a comparatively new disease in America and there is 
some difference of opinion as to the cause. It is very destructive and a 
very vigorous campaign is being made against its spread. It occurs on 
leaf, twig and fruit, causing dead, circular spots which are usually raised. 
They are light-colored when young, but become brown and corky and fre- 
quently marked with small cracks. 

Other important diseases of the citrus fruits are the scaly bark or 
nail head rust (Cladosporium herbarum var. citricolum) of Florida, the 
citrus knot (SpJmropsis tumefaciens, H. and T.) of the West Indies, and 
the gummosis, which is very widely distributed. 

Treatment of Diseases of Citrus Fruits. — So much progress is being 
made in the study of these diseases at this time that it is inadvisable to 
attempt a discussion as to treatment. Those interested in these diseases 
should consult with the agricultural experiment station in the state in. 
which the disease occurs. 



210 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

FIG 

Rust (F\ur}incoaI fici [rast.], liutlcr). — This xory common clisoa.sc 
causes nuHKM'ous rusty red sjK^ts on the hjwer surface of the leaves. When 
severe the trees arc almost defoliated. It can be controlled by frequent 
sprayinp: with Bordeaux mLxture, 

Cankers (LibcrliUa ulccrata, Massec). — This disease is sometimes 
severe wlierc fi}j;s are prown under glass. It starts a,s small radiating cracks 
which develop into cankers, sometimes completely girdling the branch and 
causing the death of the parts beyond the point of attack. 

Another canker {T uhcrcularia fici) causes a shrinking and drying out 
of the tissues surrounding the fruit scars, followed by a droo])ing of the 
dead jjarts. 

Fruit Rots {Glovicrdla rufomacidans [Clint], Sacc). — This disease is 
due t-o the same organism a,s the bitter rot of the apple. It causes sunken, 
rotten s]K)ts, usually covered with a wliitish growl h and later by numennis 
pustules of salmon-i)ink colored spores. If the fruit is attacked when young, 
it lx?comes dry and hangs on the tree. 

Ripe fruit rots may be due to various fungous organisms. 

Other imix)rtant diseases of the fig are the yellow rot {Fusarium 
roseum, Lint), the leaf s]>()t (Cercospori fici, II. and \V. ) and tlie limb 
blight {Corticutm latum, Karsten), 

PINEAPPLE 
The pineapple is subject to several diseases, all of which should receive 
more attention. Clrowers who have reason to complain of these troubles 
should consult with the state agricultural e.\]Xirimcnt station. 

MANGO 
Bloom Blight (Colletotrichum glaosporioides, Penz). — This most severe 
disease of the mango is due to the same organism that causes the 
\\ithcr top of the orange. It attacks the blossoms, causing them to turn 
black and fall. Unfortunately, the bloonnng is during the rainy season, 
which makes spraying impractical. 

AVOCADO 
Leaf Spot {Colletotrichum glaosporioides). — This is due to the same 
organism as the wither to]) of the orange. It is fretiuently so severe a.s to 
cause a heavy loss of foliage. It also attacks the fruit, frequently causing 
a pronounced cracking. 

OLIVE 
Olive Knot (Bacterium, unvastarwi, Smith). — This disease originates aa 

irregular, more or les.s hemisi)herical swellings on trunk, branches and 
leaves. They are firm and lleshy, but finally U'come wootiy and crack. 
Badly infected trees frequently die aa a result of thia discaac. 



DISEASES OF CROPS 211 

BLACKBERRY, DEWBERRY AND RASPBERRY 

Crown Gall. — See Apple. 

Leaf Spot (Septoria ruhi, West) occurs on the leaves of these bush 
fruits, causing small white or ash-colored spots with brown or reddish mar- 
gins. Close examination shows very small black dots in each spot. It is 
frequently the cause of considerable damage. 

Treatment. — Spray in the spring with Bordeaux mixture. 

Anthracnose {Gloeosporium venetum, Speg.). — This disease attacks 
the young canes of these fruits, causing small purplish spots which enlarge 
and become grayish or dirty white in the centers. When severe, it causes 
the canes to crack and die, the leaves to be dwarfed and the fruit to ripen 
prematurely. The disease also occurs on the leaves, causing them to 
develop unequally. 

Treatment. — Cut and burn the diseased and dead canes soon after 
picking the fruit. Spray with Bordeaux mixture in the spring and also as 
soon as possible after the berr3^ season. 

Orange Rust (Gymnoconia interstitialis [Schlecht], Lagh.).— This 
disease is very abundant in the spring of the year, causing a dense coating 
of red rust (spores) on the under surface of the leaves. The fungus grows 
within and may spread throughout the entire plant. 

Treatment. — Dig and burn the entire plant. Spraying with Bordeaux 
mixture will prevent the infection of healthy plants, but is not a practical 
treatment. 

Double Blossom {Fusarium ruhi, Wint.). — This disease is especially 
abundant on the Lucretia dewberry, the black diamond or Brazil 
blackberry and also occurs upon other varieties of blackberries and 
dewberries. The fungus lives within the buds, causing them to 
form witches' brooms of slender shoots with deformed or double 
flowers producing little or no fruit. The infection of the new buds which 
are forming for the next year occurs when the diseased flower buds are 
opening. 

Treatment. — The disease can be greatly reduced by picking these 
deformed leaf buds soon after they open and before the opening of the 
flower buds. Select plants so far as possible from fields free from the 
disease. 

Cane Blight {Coniothyrium fuckelii, Sacc). — This disease of the rasp- 
berries attacks the canes, causing them to be lighter in color, with smoke- 
colored patches. The foliage of diseased canes wilts and dies very much as 
from drought. The disease penetrates wounds, frequently those made by 
pruning. It is readily distributed in nursery stock and will persist in the 
soil for several years. 

Treatment. — Rotate the crops and use only healthy plants for 
setting. 

Yellows. — This disease is confined to the raspberries. It resembles 
peach yellows and should be treated in the same manner. 



212 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

STRAWBERRY 

Leaf Spot (l^phfrrcUn frngnria; [Tul.], Sacc). — This is the most promi- 
nent of t.li(; discjuscs of the strawl)orry. It causes small leaf spoils with 
white oi* ashy centers and purj)lc or red l)orders. These si)ots frequently 
unit«, forming irregular blotches. It reduces the vigor of the plant and, 
therefore, the (juality and quantity of the fruit. 

Trcalnwnt. — The soil should be well drained and rotation of crops 
practiced. Cutting over the beds and burning of the tops is advantageous. 
Spraying with I^ordeaux mixture will reduce the disease to the minimum, 
but there is doubt as to whether this treatment will prove profitable. 

CRANBERRY 

Scald or Blast {Cuignnrdin varrinii, Shear) — This fungus attacks the 
blossoms or the fruit soon after the falling of the blossoms, causing tiie iK'rry 
to shrivel and turn black. This form of the disease is kn(»wn a.s the " bla.st." 
The form known as "scald" causes small, soft, light-c;oloreil, watery spots 
which s])read over the entire fruit, sometimes causing a zone effect. The 
disease also attacks the leaves, causing irr(\gular, reddish-brown s]M)t«. 
The disease is likely to become worse from year to year and to prove very 
destructive. 

Treatment. — Careful irrigation, raking and burning of the dead 
material and sanding the Ixigs are advantages )us. Selection of resistant 
strains for planting, and si)raying with liordeaux mixture about five times 
during the season will control the disease. 

Rot {Acanthoshynchus vacdnii, Shear). — This fungus causes a 
rot ver>' similar to the scald and can ])e controlled by the same treat- 
ment. 

Anthracnose {(ilomcrcUa rufoinnculnns [Berk.] Si)aul. and von 
Schrenk; vacinii, Shear). — This fungus is the same as the one causing the 
bitter rot of the a])ple. It causes a rot very similar to and almost indis- 
tinguishable from the scald and can be controlled by the same treatment. 

GOOSEBERRY 
Powdery Mildew (Sphrrrotlirra tnors-urw fSchw.] Berk. an<l Curt.) — 
Ver>' simil.ir to the mildew on the apple and other fruits and should Receive 
the Bame trcutmeiit. 

CURRANT 

Anthracnose (Psmdopeziza rihrs, Kleb.). — This ver>' common disease 
of the currant attacks the leaves, causing many small l)rown or black siK)t.s 
followed by a yellowing of the entire leaf which falls ]ireniatunMy. The 
discjise alst) attacks the canes and the fruit, causing small black, sunken 
areas. It is carriecl from year to year on the canes. 

Trratnu'tU. — Remove the olil canes and spray with Bonieaux mix- 
ture in the spring just before the buds oi)cn, again after the leaf 



DISEASES OF CROPS 213 

buds open and then at intervals of three weeks until the fruit is two- 
thirds grown. 

Note. — There are several other leaf diseases of the gooseberry and 
currant that may occasionally prove injurious or destructive and should 
be treated as the circumstances may demand. 

GRAPE 

Black Rot (Guignardia bidwellii [Ell.], V. and R.). — This very common 
disease of the grape attacks the fruit, causing a black rot followed by a 
shriveling and drying into a hard, wrinkled mummy. It occurs on the 
leaves and young shoots earlier than on the fruit and causes tan-colored 
spots with minute black dots in the centers. 

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture before the opening of 
the flower-buds, and again after the setting of the fruit. Addi- 
tional spraying should depend on the weather; in dry seasons it may 
be necessary to spray every three weeks until the fruit is two-thirds 
grown. 

Bird's Eye or Anthracnose (Sphaceloma ampelinum, DeBy.). — This 
disease is not nearly so severe as the black rot. It attacks the fruit, causing 
brown or black spots with sunken centers and red borders. On the canes 
it causes similar spots, but as they approach maturity the centers become 
ashy in color and the edge dark. 

Treatment. — Badly diseased canes should be cut out and burned. 
Spray treatment same as for black rot. 

Bitter Rot or Ripe Rot. — This is the same as on the apple but its attack 
is confined to the ripe fruit. 

Treatmc7it. — Spray with ammoniacal copper carbonate solution. 

Downy Mildew (Plasmopara viticola [Berk, and Curt.], Berl. and De 
Toni.). — This fungus causes whitish and finally brownish areas in the leaf, 
followed by a very perceptible downy growth on the lower surface. It 
sometimes causes the death of the entire leaf, shoot or vine. It is especially 
severe on the European varieties. It sometimes attacks the fruit, causing 
the gray or brown rot. 

Treatment. — Same as for black rot. 

Powdery Mildew (Uncinula necator [Schw.j, Burr.). — This fungus is 
very similar to the powdery mildew of the apples and other fruits. It 
attacks all parts of the plant above ground, and occurs on both upper and 
lower surfaces of the leaves, causing circular, whitish, powdery spots which 
frequently unite and cover the entire leaf. It also attacks the fruit, causing 
it to develop irregularly, fail to develop or to fall. It is especially common 
in vineyards where the vines are too closely set and on vines grown under 
glass. 

Treatment. — Spray with potassium sulphide or when the temperature 
is above 75° F., sprinkle the vines with flowers of sulphur. 

Necrosis {Fusicoccum viticolum, Reddick). — This disease causes a 



214 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



dwarfing of the new slioots and leaves and wlien severe a shriveling uj) :ui.l 
dying. 

Treatment. — 
Dig and burn all 
diseased vines, and 
spray with Bor- 
deaux mixture. 

Crown Gall. — 
See Apple. 

N o T E . — A 
number of other 
minor diseases will 
be controlled by 
the treatment pre- 
scribed for the rot. 



ASPARAGUS 
Rust [Puccima 
asparagi, D. C). — 
This fungus causes 
the tops of the 
plants to redden 
soon after blossom- 
ing. The leaves 
turn yellow and 
fall, and the stems 
show numerous 
small blisters con- 
taining masses of 
rust-colored jxjwder 
(spores). Later in 
the season these 
pustules break and 
become black in 
color. The disease 
spreads rai)idly and 
causes hea\y losses. 
Treatment. — 
Cut and bum dis- 
eased plants as soon 
as observed. Spray 
with liordeaux mi.\- 
ture. 





^ 




Anthracnoseof Bkan. ' 

Tho brown spots ornir on both tho pods jind plfint.s. TTie.r 
arr musod by spores coming in contaft with tho tondor phuit 
ti.s.suos, when* tlu'v norminatr and give ris«' tosorions daina<?c. 



■Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 2M. 



DISEASES OF CROPS 215 

BEAN 

Anthracnose {Colletotrichum lindemuthianum [Sacc. and Magn.], B. 
and C.)- — This disease is most severe on the wax beans. It occurs on 
the pods, causing unsightly, dark-colored, sunken, canker-like spots. It 
also attacks the leaves and stems, producing similar spots and frequently 
causing the death of the plants. The fungus is carried in the seed and one 
diseased seed in a thousand is enough to infect a large number of growing 
plants. 

Treatment. — Select clean seed. 

Rust {Uromyces appendicidatus [Pers.], Link). — This fungus causes 
minute rusty spots or blisters on the under surface of the leaves and 
occasionally on the pods. These blisters break and set free great quan- 
tities of the reddish or rust-colored spores. It is not so severe as the 
anthracnose. 

Treatment. — Practice clean cultivation and burn all old vines in the 
fall. 

Blight (Pseudomonas phaseoli, Smith). — This disease attacks leaves, 
stems and pods, causing large watery areas, which later become dry, brown 
and papery. It is carried from year to year in the seed. 

Treatment. — Use seed from healthy plants. 

Downy Mildew (Phytophthora phaseoli, Thaxt.). — This disease is 
unlike the mildew on the fruits. It attacks the pods of lima beans, causing 
irregular areas of dense, woolly-white growth. It also occurs on other 
parts of the plant, causing dwarfing and irregular growths. 

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta sp.). — This disease is most severe on the pole 
lima beans. It causes an irregular spotting of the leaves and to some 
extent of the pods. It is carried from season to season in the seed. 

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

PEA 

Spot {Ascochyta pisi, Lib.). — This disease causes spots on stems, 
leaves and pods which are most conspicuous on the latter. On the pods 
they are circular, sunken with dark borders and pale centers, becoming 
pink when mature. The spots on the leaves are oval and usually show 
concentric circles. When severe on the stems it causes wilting and death 
of the plant. 

Treatment. — Select clean seed and rotate crops. 

BEET 

Leaf Spot (Cercospora heticola, Sacc). — This fungus causes the very 
common circular, brown, purple-bordered spots with ash-colored centers. 

Treatment. — Spraying with Bordeaux mixture will control this dis- 
ease. 



216 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Root Rot {Rhizocionia bcUr, Kuhn). — This disease causes the outer 
Ifavcs to turn black and fall. As the disease advances the roots crack and 
then rot from the crown downwani. 

Tnatnutd. — Use lime and rotate erojjs. 

Scab. — See Potato. 



CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, TURNIP, ETC. 

Black Rot (Pscudo/noiuis ainijx.^lris, Paininci). — This is a bacterial 
disease wliich attacks 
all of the above and 
many related plants. 
It starts at the edges 
of the leaves, causing 
a blackening of the 
veins, gradually work- 
ing downward to the 
main stalk and then 
upward and o\itward 
until the entire plant is 
affected. The affect ('<! 
leaves become yellow, 
wilt and then tlry. In 
advanced stages the 
disease is accompanied 
l)y other rot organisms 
which cause a i)ro- 
nounced odor. 

Treat ni€7it. — A\lien 
once in the soil it is 
extremely diflicult to 
eradicate. Prevent in- 
fection by using clean 
seed, which as a pre- 
cautionary measure 
should be soaked for 
iifteen minutes in for- 
maldehyde (1 part for- 
malin to 30 ])arts 
water) . 

Club Root or Fin- 
ger and Toe Disease 

(I'lasfno(h'oj)hora hrn.ssiar, Wor.^. — This very destructive and well-known 
disejuse attacks cal)bage and r('lat(>(| plants, (.nising unsightly knott<xl 
roots. The diseased ])lants are dwarfed and full to develop hcada. 

* From FonDcm* Bulletin 488, U. S. Di-pt. of .\8riculturo. 




Enlarged Roora op Cabbacb Caused iiy Nematxides.' 



DISEASES OF CROPS 



217 



Treatment. — Use nothing but absolutely clean soil in the seed-beds; 
use lime in the fields; rotate crops. 

CANTALOUPES AND MELONS 
Leaf Blight {AUernaria hrassicce [Berk.], Sacc. var. nigrescens, Pegl.). — 
This disease starts as small brown spots with concentric rings, which 

enlarge, unite and fre- 
quently cause the de- 
struction of the entire 
leaf. The melons ripen 
prematurely and are 
soft, wilted and in- 
sipid. 

Treatment.- — Ro- 
tate crops and spray 
with Bordeaux mix- 
ture. 

Downy Mildew. — 
See Cucumber. 

Anthracnose {Col- 
letotrichum lagenarium 
[Pass.], Ell. and Halst.). 
• — This disease attacks 
all parts of the vines of 
cucumber and squash, 
but is most injurious 
to watermelons, causing 
the buds and tendrils 
to die and turn black 
and the leaves to turn 
yellow. It is very no- 
ticeable on the fruit, 
causing sunken canker- 
like spots with pinkish 
centers. When the 
young fruit is attacked 
it is likely to have a 
bitter flavor. 
Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

Wilt (Bacillus tracheiphilus, E. F. Smith) . — This disease of melons and 
cucumbers, and sometimes of pumpkins and squash, may start with the 
central stem, causing the entire vine to wilt and die quickly, or it may start 
with a branch and work slowly back to the central stem. 

Treatment. — Rotation of crops; avoid those that are susceptible. 

1 From Farmeis! Bulletin 488, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. 




Enlarged RooTa op Cauliflower Caused by the 
Club-root Organism. ^ 



218 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

CUCUMBER 

Downy Mildew (Pscudopcrorwspora cuhenffis, B. and C. Rost.). — 
Tliis (li.sea.sc causes yellow, angular sj)ots on the older leaves and eventually 
causes the entire leaf to turn i)ale and die. Considerable quantity of white 
growth ai)]H\irs on the under surface. 

Trcntmtnt. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

Anthracnose. — See Melon. 

Leaf Bhght and Fruit Spot {Cladosporium cucumerinum, KIl. and 
Arth.). — This di.scase ai)pears on the leaves tus water spots and finally 
causes the entire leaf to wilt and rot. On the fruit it apjx'ars as minute 
gray, sunken, velvety spots wliich fretjuently unite and finally become black. 

Trealinent. — Prompt spraying ^^^th Bordeaux mixture. 

Wilt.— See Melon. 

CELERY 

Leaf Spots {Cerospora apii, Fr., and Septoria petroselini , Desm., var. 
a/;//j.— There arc two leaf .spot diseases which can be controlled by sprajnng 
with Bordeaux mixture. The first treatment .should \)C while the ])lants 
are in the .seed-bed and should be given whether the plants do or do not 
show the disease. Other sprayings should l)c at intervals of two weeks 
and with a high pressure sprayer. If necessary to spray late in the season, 
the last treatment should be with ammoniacal copper carbonate solution. 

ONION 

Smut {Urocystisc cepulcc, Frost.). — This very destructive disease 
attacks the young ])lants, causing dark opaque spots on the leaves. The 
leaves finally die and dry uj) and the spots burst and jx'rmit the escajx? of 
mas.s<is of spores. The mature bulbs show bUu'k nuusses of s])ores in the 
outer and sometimes in the inner leaves, and when badly infected dr>' and 
rot. Sets and young onions when well started are practically immune 
from the di.sea.se. The sp<jres persist in the soil for many years. 

Tnatment. — Prevent the introduction by u.sing clean sets. U.se linje 
and long cro]) rotations for infected soil. In small i)lantings disinfect the 
soil with formaldehyde. 

Downy Mildew or Blight (Peronospora schlcidcni, Ung.). — Diseased 
plants have a tendency to develop a violet tint by which tliey can 1)0 
recognized at a distance. As the di.sea.se advanc(^s, they U'come covered 
with a mouldy coating and finally collai)se. Slightly affected jilants may 
recover under suitable weather conditions. The diseiuse si)rcads rapidly 
in tlamj), warm weather and on wet land. 

Tnutnunt. — See that lands are well drained. Rotate crops. Spray 
with Bordeaux mixture. 

CARROT 
Soft Rot (Bnrilhi.s carotororiis, Jones). — This is a bacterial <li.s{\ise 
which causes a soft rotting of the roots. It also attacks turnii)s, radishes, 



DISEASES OF CROPS 219 

parsnips, onions, celery, beets and many other plants. The only satis- 
factory treatment lies in the rotation of crops. 

PARSNIP 
Blight (Cercospora apii, Ft.). — See Celery. 

POTATO 

Late Blight or Downy Mildew {Phytopthora infestans [Mont.], De 
By.). — This disease usually starts near the tip or margin of the leaf, but 
causes the infected area to die and blacken. In cool, wet, cloudy weather 
it spreads very rapidly and causes an offensive odor. The diseased tubers 
may show slightly depressed, dark-colored areas and a dirty brown color 
within. The disease is frequently the cause of heavy losses by rotting. 

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture, beginning when the plants 
are about six inches in height and repeat about every two or three weeks 
throughout the growing season. 

Early Blight (Alternaria solani[E. and M.], J. and G.). — This disease 
appears earlier in the season than the late blight. It causes brown, brittle, 
irregular, more or less circular leaf spots with rather definite concentric 
circles. These spots frequently unite and the plant dies very much as 
though from natural causes. 

Treatment. — Same as for late blight. 

Wilt, Stem Rot and Dry Rot {Fusarium oxysporum, Schlecht). — The 
plant assumes an unhealthy appearance, the leaves roll and curl and the 
plant falls and dies prematurely. The stems are partly or entirely black and 
dead near the base and frequently show a white or pink mould. When 
stems are cut across below the ground they show discolorations just below 
the surface. This field form of the disease is known as" wilt "or "stem rot." 

In storage the tubers undergo a "dry rot" beginning at the stem end, 
which causes them to shrivel and become light in weight. When cut 
across, these tubers show black discolorations just below the surface. The 
disease can be carried on the seed and will also persist in the soil. 

Treatment. — Select seed potatoes which are free from surface cankers 
and are perfectly white when cut. When the soil becomes infected use 
rotation of crops for from three to five years. 

Black Leg {Bacillus phytophthorus, Appel). — This disease causes the 
plants to be dwarfed, erect, pale in color and to die early. The stems 
become brown or black near the ground and the disease works downward. 
It is carried in the seed. 

Treatment. — Soak the seed in formaldehyde or corrosive sublimate as 
recommended for potato scab. 

Scab (Oospora scabies, Thaxt.). — This well-known disease is readily 
recognized by the rough, pitted character of the tubers and is the cause of 
heavy losses. It can be carried on the seed and will persist in the soil for 
several years. 



220 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Trcatmenl. — Soak tlic seed potatoes for two hours in formaldehyde 
(1 ]iouii(l in 30 gallons of water) or in corrosive .suhliniatc (4 ounces in 30 
gallons of water) for one and one-half hours. When the land becomes 
infected, avoid the use of stable manure and lime, and rotate crops for 
tlu-ee to ri\(^ years. 

Little Potato, Rosette, Stem Rot, Scurf {Uhizoctonia or Corticium 
vayum, B. and C, var. solani, Burt.). — This disease a.ssumes difTcrent form.*?, 
var>'ing with the climatic conditions, soils and varieties. In ver>' severe 
cases manj' of the young i)lants fail to get througli the ground. Many 
that do get through are dwarfed and sliow a jM'culiar crinkling of the 
foliage. The ])art of the stems 
below ground shows jx'culiar 
brownish or black cankere. In 
some cases the leaves tend to roll 
ujjward; many small tulK'i-s are 
formed just Ih'Iow the surface of 
the ground and just above a very 
jironoimced canker, and aerial 
l)otat<)cs along the stem alxjvc 
ground. The fungus can bo 
readily detected on the tubers; 
it ap]x^ars as small black spots, 
which do not wash off, but can 1)C 
readily nMuoved by rubbing. 
However, the presence of these 
spots on the tul)ers does not 
nece.ssarily mean a severe out- 
break of tlie disease. 

Tnatnunt. — Soak seed pota- 
toes in corrosive sublimate as 
recominoiidcd for seal). 

Bacterial Wilt {lina'Uus sol- 
anaccarum, Snnth). — Tiic ])lants wilt prematurely, U'como yellow, then 
black and dry. This disease atta<-ks t«»mat.o(^s, tobacco, jK'iijx'rs and 
eggi)lants. 

Trratmcnt. — Rotate crops, avoiding those that are susceptible. 

Tipbum. — This disea.se is due entirely to hot, dr>' weather. It causes 
the leaves to diy at the tii)s and margins, roll u]) and break off. 

NoTK. — There are a numln'r of other di.sea^es of the iwtato which 
cannot Ixj included in this brief discussion. 




A Potato Akkectkd with Russet St-.uj.' 

ShowinR tho russet inn and rrarkinn, asso- 
ciated with llic fiaigiKs Uhizoctonia. 



TOMATO 
Early Blight.— See Potato. 
Leaf Blight {S(/>tnri(i bjcnprrsici, Speg.). — This disease appears 88 



*>'rom FaiiDcn' BuUcUjd M4, U. 6. Dcpt. of A<ricultur«. 



DISEASES OF CROPS 221 

numerous small spots over the surface of the leaves, beginning with the 
lower and older leaves, causing them to tm-n yellow and fall. It is one of 
the most severe diseases and the cause of heavy losses. 

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

Fusarium Wilt {Fusarium lycopersici, Sacc). — This is a disease in 
which the fungus works on the inside of the plant, causing it to wilt and 
die. It cannot be controlled by spraying. Rotation of crops is advan- 
tageous. 

Bacterial Wilt. — See Potato. 

Blossom-End Rot or Point Rot. — The cause of this disease is disputed, 
but it is now generally believed to be due to drought, although it may 
also be due to other causes. It is a dry black rot starting at the blossom 
end of the fruit and is often very destructive. It is more serious in dry 
weather and in dry soils. 

Treatment. — Practice thorough cultivation of the soil and remove 
diseased fruit. 

Anthracnose (CoUetotrichum phomoides [Sacc], Chester). — This dis- 
ease causes discolored, sunken spots which become centers of decay. It 
is likely to be very severe in wet weather. 

Treatment. — Spray with Bordeaux mixture. 

Fruit Rot (Phoma destructiva, Plowr.). — This disease causes a spotting 
of the leaves and a fruit rot. Caa probably be controlled by spraying with 
Bordeaux mixture. 

EGGPLANT 

Attacked by several fruit rots and leaf spots which sometimes prove 
destructive. They can be controlled by the use of Bordeaux mixture. 

PEPPER 

Susceptible to several fruit and stem rots, leaf spots and wilts which 
can be controlled by rotation of crops and treatment with Bordeaux 
mixture. 

LETTUCE 

Mildew (Bremia lactucoe, Hegel).— This disease is frequently very 
destructive. It causes rather large, pale spots, which become yellowish 
above and fuzzy below. 

Treatment. — Good cultural methods for outdoors. Ventilation for 
crops grown under glass. 

Drop or Wilt (Sclerotinia lihertiana, Fckl.). — This causes a very pro- 
nounced wilting and drooping, beginning with the lower leaves and grad- 
ually spreading throughout the entire plant. 

Treatment. — Removal and destruction of the diseased plants and 
disinfection of soil at that point \\ath Bordeaux mixture. 

Note. — There are several other diseases of the lettuce more or less 
important. 



222 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



SWEET POTATO 

Soft Rot (Rhuopus nigricans, EhrbR.), — This storage rot is caused by 
the hiv;i(l mould fundus and can l)c readily rot'omiizod. It is a('oonij)anied 
by a sweetish odor and dense growth of white mould which Ix^eomes black. 
It si)rca(Ls rapidly, but can be controlled by proper ventilation and regula- 
tion of tem])(>raturc. 

Black Rot {Spharonema fimbrialum [Ell. anil Halst.], Sacc). — This 
diseas(> occurs in l)otii field and storage house. It aiJjK'ai-s as <lark-brown 
or i)lack, irregular, dry ])atches on the jiotatoes, sometimes causing break- 
ing or cracking near the center of the diseased area. On the young sprouts 
and stems it causes black jiatches and frequently kills the entire i)lant. 

I'rcdtment. — Do not use diseased ])lants for setting. Do not use 
stai)lc mamne. Grow seeds from slijis. These slips should ])e cut from the 
old i)1ants and set as early in July as jwssible. 

Stem Rot {Neciria ipamoeoe, Halst.). — This disease attacks the stem 
near the sui-faco of the ground and s])rea(ls in lx)th directions, frequently 
causing the death of tiie plant. The interior of the stem shows a yellow 
discoloration. 

Treatment. — Rotate the crops and use slij) .seed. 

Note. — There are a number of other rots and diseases which will not 
be taken up in this discussion. 

PEANUT 
Peanuts are subject to several foliage and root diseases of more or 
less importance. Growers of this crop should consult with their state 
agricultural experiment station. 

TOBACCO 

Granville Tobacco Wilt (B. solenacerarum, Smith). — This is due to the 
same organism as the wilt of tiie potato, tomato, peppers and eggplants. 
(Sec Potato.) 

Mosaic, Calico or Mottle Top. — The cause of this diseiuse is still some- 
what uncertain. Tiie leaves of tlie tli.seiused plants show dark and light 
areas and freciucntly irregular thickenings or twist ings. 

Treatment. — Remove the disea.sed plants. Be careful not to touch 
heaUhy j)lants while working with the tlisea.'^ed i)lants. The tlisease can 
1)0 communicated by contact. 

Leaf Spots. — There arc a mnnber of leaf s])ot disea.<;es and also mildews 
wliich cause more or less trouble. 

Root Rots {TliieUivia ba.sicola, Zopf.). — This diseaj^e is a rotting of 
the roots, accom])anie(l by the production of numerous new roots. The 
affected plants are dwarfed and frequently killed. 

Treatment. — Sterilize scctl-bcd. Rotate croi)S. Avoid liming and 
acid fertilizers. 

01 



DISEASES OF CROPS 223 

REFERENCES 

"Diseases of Tropical Plants." Cooke. 

"Fungous Diseases of Plants." Duggar. 

"Spraying of Plants." Lodeman. 

"Minnesota Plant Diseases." Freeman. 

"Diseases of Economic Plants." Stevens and Hall. 

"Diseases of Cultivated Plants and Trees." Massee. 

California Expt. Station Bulletin No. 262. "Citrus Diseases of Florida and Cuba 
Compared with California." 

Michigan Expt. Station (Technical Bulletin No. 20). "Control of Root Knot Nema- 
tode." 

New Jersey Expt. Station Circulars: 

44. "Diseases of Apples, Pears and Quinces." 

45. "Diseases of Peach, Plum and Cherry." 

Pennsylvania Expt. Station Bulletin No. 36. "Collar-Blight and Related Forms of 

Fire Blight." 
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture Bulletins: 

64. "Potato Wilt and Other Diseases." 

203. "Field Studies of the Crown Gall of Sugar Beets." 
Farmers' Bulletin, U.. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

544. "Potato Tuber Diseases." 



CHAPTER 19 

Insect Pests and Their Control 

Hy W. B. Wood 
Scientific Assistant, Bureau of Entomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture 

Insects arc, without doubt, tlic greatest enemies of the fanner, for they 
destroy tho crops of fichi and garden and render the fruit on the trees unfit 
for use; they injure the domestic animals hy constant irritation, causing 
them to lose weight and even to die. Stored grains, tobacco and other 
farm products also suffer from their attacks. 

After studying their life histories and habits, methods of control have 
been devised by which they can be combated with a reasonable amount of 
success. Many species can l)C held in absolute contnjl by thorough and 
timely applications of the proper remedies, while others are only partially 
held in check. 

In order to intelligently apply a treatment for the control of an in.sect, 
something of its habits must be known, especially in regard to its maimer 
of feeding. Most of the imjiortant pests fall within two great groups, 
namely, biting or chewing insects and sucking insects, depending on 
whether the mouth parts arc chisel or pincher-like in the first cla.ss, or 
beak-like and uuulv. for jiiercing and sucking in the second chuss. A 
number of these i)ests will fall in certain special groups which require a 
definite treatment, indicated by their manner of living or by ihc injury- they 
do. Some of these special classes arc internal feeders, as boring insects, 
subterranean insects and insects affecting stored j)roducts. 

The external feeders, whi<-h have biting mouth parts, usually feed upon 
plants by gnawing out small j)ieces of the i)lant tissue which are swallowed. 
This group includes the larva» or catcrpillai's of moths and butterflies, the 
larva; and of adult beetles, grasshopi)ers and crickets, and the larv£D of 
some species of Ili/furnoplcra or the wasj) group. Such insects may usually 
Ix; controlled l»y aj)i)Iying a poison to the ])lant, either as a fine spray or as 
a i><)W(ler dusted or blown over its surface. The arsenicals have been found 
to be the In'st remedy for this group. 

The sucking insects ftn-d In' piercing the skin or epidermis of j^lnnta 
with their sharp beaks and sucking the saj). This group of insects is 
rei)resented \>y the true bugs or Ilcmiptcra, to which order l>elong the 
squash bug, scale insect*, plant lice and leaf hoppers. It is evident that a 
stomach ]x)ison on the surface of the plant would not affect insects of this 
class, so it is necessary to us(! what is known jus a contact in.sect icide, which 
should be applied as a spray or wash directly to the insect's Ixxly. Such 

224 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 225 

remedies kill by their suffocating or corrosive action. The most common 
of these insecticides are nicotine solutions, kerosene or oil emulsions, lime- 
sulphur wash and fish-oil soap. 

In the following pages will be found listed the principal insect pests 
under the classification of general crop insects, truck crop insects, and 
fruit insects. Only a very brief description of each insect can be given, 
and in most cases nothing of their life histories, in the limited space devoted 
to the subject. The treatments which have given the best results in each 
individual case are indicated briefly and reference is made to publications 
which give a more extended account of the insects. The abbreviations 
which are used in the references are as follows: 

Bur. Ent. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology Bulletin. 
Bur. Ent. Cir. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology Circular. 
Farm. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers' Bulletin. 
Dept. Bull. — U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin. 

GENERAL CROP INSECTS 

Caterpillars (leaf-eating). — Many plants are attacked by caterpillars 
which feed upon the leaves. These worms are the larvae of Lepidopterous 
insects, or moths and butterflies. 

Treatment. — Spray with an arsenical, preferably arsenate of lead, or 
dust with powdered arsenate of lead or Paris green. If the spray gathers 
in drops and does not adhere well to the surface of the leaves, use a resin 
fish-oil soap sticker. 

Cutworms. — Various species of the family Noctuidce, usually feeding 
at night upon the roots, crowns or foliage of plants. The worms may be 
found in daytime lying curled up in ground about an inch below surface. 

Treatment. — Broadcast poison bran mash about the garden in the 
spring just before the plants come up. Make other applications later if 
the cutworms are still found. Cultivate the ground thoroughly in late 
summer and early in the spring to prevent the growth of grasses and weeds, 
thus starving out worms if present. 

Grasshoppers or Locusts. — A number of species feed on corn, wheat, 
sorghum and other field crops, also on many garden crops and at times on 
fruit trees. 

Treatment. — Cultivate the fields and stony fence rows in the fall to 
break up the egg masses deposited one to two inches below the surface of 
the ground. Broadcast Criddle mixture or poison bran mash flavored with 
juice of orange or lemon in fields where grasshoppers are plentiful. 

Leaf Beetles {Chrysomelidce) . — Crops of many kinds are injured by 
beetles which feed upon the leaves as adults and sometimes as larvae. 

Treatment. — Spray or dust the affected plants with arsenicals. 

Plant Lice {Aphididce). — Many species of plant lice are found attacking 
field, garden and orchard crops. They feed by sucking the juices of the 
host plant and cannot be controlled by a poison spray. 



226 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Treatment. — Use sprays of nicotine or toliacco extract, kcrosenfli) 
emulsion (') to 10 j^or cent stronKtli) or fish-oil soap just after tiio apliids 
ap{X'ar and at such other times as ma}' be necessary. Spray thoroughly, 
being sure \<i wet all i)lant lice. If spray does not adhere to the bodies of 
insects, add 2 or 3 pounds of laundry soap to 50 gallons of spray solution, 
or |)referal)ly an e(|ual amount of resin fish-oil soap as a sticker. For under- 
ground forms j)r;icti<'e rotation of cro])s or use soil fumigants. 

White Grubs {Laclinoslci'na spp.). — White grubs or grub worms are 
the larvjE of the common brown beetles known as May Ixjetles or June 
bugs, commonly seen around lights ami on the screens in the sj)ring and 
summer. Their natural l)ree(liiig place is grass lands, but they are found 
in fields and gardens feeding upon the roots of many plants. 

Treatment. — No successful treatment is known. Practice crop rotation 
when necessary. Fall plo\\ing will l^c of some Ixjnefit. Do not jilant 
croi)s liable to be injured, as strawl^erries, on recently broken sod land. 

Wire Worms {Klatcridiv). — Slender, l)rown, hard, shining larwT, ]/2 
iiuh to \}^2. inclics long, body divided into several segments which .show 
plainly tlirce pairs of small legs near front end of body. Their natural 
breeding place is grass lands, but they feed on or in the roots of many 
garden and field cro])s. Two years or more are recjuired for tlevelopmcnt. 

Treatment. — No satisfactory treatment has been found, l^otation of 
crops, preventing ground from remaining long in grass, and late fall plow- 
ing followed by repeated liarrowing for a month or two are tlie best means 
of preventing their incrciuse. Seeds might l)e ))rotected by the use of some 
substanee as a rci)ellcnt wiiicli would not injure germination. 

The Army Worm {Lencania unipuneta, Ilaworth). — In general appear- 
ance it resembles cutworms. About l3^2 inches long, dark in color, with 
three yello^^^sh stripes down the back. The achilt insect is a dull liroiNTi 
moth, often seen about lights in the sjn-ing. The worm feeds naturally on 
wild grasses, but when it is abundant marches across fields, destroying 
many croi)s, including corn, wheat, oats and related crops, as well as many 
truck cro|)s. 

Treatment. — The march of tlie woims to uninfes'.ed fields may be 
checked by a deep dust furrow through which a log is dragged occasionally 
to crush the worms and to maintain a thick coat of dust on the siiles. 
Scattering ix)ison bran mash througn infested fields will often prove vcr>* 
effective. Lute fall plowing and cultivatmg will help in destroying over- 
wintering wonii'^. 

The Fall Army Worm { Laphygma frugiperda, S. and .\.). — In general 
appearance is similar to the common army worm, but dislingaishe<l there- 
from by dark stri])es along each side, sej)arated by a strij)0 of grayish yellow. 
So called from the? fact that the most destructive bnKul api)ears after 
August 1st. It has wide range of food plants, including many forage 
and tnick croi)s. The worms are especially injurious to l.awns. 

Treatment. — Practice fall plowing to r)rctik up the pupa^ cells in the 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 227 



ground. Scatter poison bran mash when the caterpillars appear, or spray 
or dust with arsenicals. 
Bur. Ent. Bull. 29. 

TRUCK CROP INSECTS 

The Asparagus Beetle (Crioceris asparagi, Linn.). — This beetle is about 

one-fourth of an inch long, with 
dark-colored body, red thorax and 
yellow wing covers marked and 
bordered with blue. The adults 
and grubs feed on the stems and 
tender shoots of asparagus. 

Treatme7it.— Apply arsenical 
sprays. Air-slaked lime will kill 
the grubs. 

Bui-. Ent. Cir. 102. 

Bean Aphis (Aphis rumicis, 
Linn.). — ^A small black plant louse 
with pale shanks. It attacks beans, 
dock, shepherd's purse, pigweed, 
"burning bush" and snowball 
bush. 

Treatment. — Spray the plants 
thoroughly with nicotine solution. 

Bur. Ent. BuU. 33, p. 109. 

Bean Weevil, The Common 
{Bruchus obtectus, Say.). — A small 
gray or brown beetle with mottled 
wing covers, about one-eighth of 
an inch long. It lay its eggs on or 
in beans in the field, also breeds in 
stored beans. The grub eats its 
way into the bean and develops 
there, sometimes several to one 
bean. 

Treatment. — Heat the infested 
seed or fumigate with carbon 
bisulphide. 
Bur. Ent. BuU. 96; Year-Book, U. S. D. A., 1898, p. 239. 
Other Bean Weevils. — Several other weevils affect the bean in March, 
in the same way as the common bean weevil. 
Treatment. — See Bean Weevil, the Common. 

The Beet Army Worm {Laphygma exigua, Hbn.). — Beets are some- 
times attacked in the Western states by this insect at about the same time 
the fall army worm is making its attacks in other sections. Several 

>Bur. Ent. Ck. 102. 




Sprat op Aspakagtjs, with Common Aspar- 
agus Beetle in its Different Stages.^ 



Asparagus tip at 
injury. 



right, showing eggs 
Natural size. 



and 



228 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 




HUOAD-BEAN WkEVIL 

{Laria rufnnana).^ 
Adult, or beetle, enlarged. 



other food iilants tire known, including a few garden croi)s and a nvunU-r of 
weeds. 

Treatment. — Sjiray or dust arscnicals upon the leaves. Poison bran 
nia.sh may also Ix; of value. 
Riir. Knt. Hull. 13. 

Beet Leaf Beetle, The Larger {MonoxiajninciicoUis, ^a.y.). — This leaf 
Ix'otlc, known also locally as the alkali hug and 
the French bug, rescndjlcs soniowhat the clni- 
Icaf l)cctle. It causes considerable injury to the 
Bugar-lK'ct in Colorado and nearby states. 

7'rcatment. — Dust or sjjray foliage with ar- 
scnicals. 

The Beet Leaf Hopper {Eidettix temlla, 
Baker). — The Inn-t in the Western states is often 
troubled with a condition known as "curly leaf," 
caused by the alx)ve-nanied leaf ho])])er, a light 
yellowish green siiecies about one-eighth of an 
inch long. 

Treathient. — S]iray the l)epts thoroughly with 
a 40 ])er cent nicotine sul])hate solution in 

water, diluted 1 part 
to ()(K) ; or s])ray with 

5 jKM- cent kerosene emulsion. Many ho])])ers 
may Ix; ca])tured on a shield smeared with 
tanglefoot or covered with sticky fly jiajx^r 
if it is jnished up and down l)etween the 
rows. A wire or rod should 1x5 fastened in 
front of the shield at the ])roper distance to 
stir out the hopjx^rs. 

Bur. I'.iit. Hull. M, Pt. 4. 
BUster Beetles {}feIoi(l(r). — At times a 
Tunuber of crops are badly damaged by the 
insects known as l>lister beetles or "old- 
fashioned ])otato bugs," These Ix'etles are 
rather large, long-legged and are varit)usly 
colored, the usual colors being black, gray or 
striped with yellow and black. 

Treatment — A]iiily arsenate of lead or 
other arsenicals to the affected jilants as a si)ray or dust. Several treat- 
ments may Ix; nece.s.siiry if the beetles swarm on cn)])s from other localities. 
Hur. Knt. Hull. 43, pp. 21-27. 

The Cabbage Looper (Autographa brassica:', Uiley). — The looper is a 
ligiit-green worm often referred to as a nieasuring worm because of its 
looping movement when crawling. It feeds on the leaves of cabbage. 

» liur. Ent. BulL 43. 




Hlistek Hketlk 
{EpicaxUa vuirginala).* 

Enhirged. 



> Bur. Eot. Dull. 00, Pu 5. 




Leaf Hoppers (Eutettix, Spp.) and their Work.* 
Explanation of illustration on page 230. 



> Bur. Ent. Bull. 66. Pt. 4. 

229 



230 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



1 — EulcUixtiinUa: a, adult; 6. nymph; c. wing; d, c, genitoliu; /, crkh, greatly 
enlftrgfd; g, Krrtion of hoot stoni. pnowing frcsn cggH in plnro" h, mimo, Bhowing CRRS 
n'ady to hatch; i, ohi ogg-scars on Inrt hIciils; j, Hiiiall Ii-af of nunar-h<'c(, sliowinK 
chjiraflcri^tii; "curlv-lenf '* condition; k, cnhirKctl Hoction of hack of un cxtrt-mc ca^e of 
"cnrly-loaf," showinR "warty" condition of vcina. 2 — Euteitix «/roW: a, work of 
nymphs on BU(i!ir-l)fct.s; b, leaf cnlarRod. 3 — ExUettix scUuln: adult. 4 — Euteitix 
clarivida: a, wing; b, head and pronotiim; r, d, genitalia. 5 — Eutrttix nigridorsum: 
work of nymphs on loaf of llchantlm.s. (5 — Eutettix slraminca: work of nymphs on 
loaf of anotluT Ilelianthu.s. 7 — Euteitix inaana: wing. 8 — Eutettix stricta: a, b, 
genitalia. 

Trealment. — Apply arsenicals until tiio cahbage head is half grown. 
If spray is used, adfl resin fish-oil soap as a sticker. 




TlAnLEQnx C.\nBAOB Bua (Murganiin histrionica) .^ 

A — Adult. H — Egg ma.s.s. C — First stago of nymph. D — Second stagp. 
E — Third H( age. V — Fourth 8tag(\ G — Fifth stage. .Ml enlarged. 

The Cabbage Maggot (Pegomya brassic/r, Bouch6). — Soft white mag- 
gots work in the nx)ts of cabbage, turnip and cauliflower, eating away the 
root hairs and .scarring the surface of the larger roots. This maggot is the 
larva of a two-winge<l fly which lays its eggs in the ground near the plants. 

Treaimrnt. — Fit a disk of tarred p;»]>cr about four inches in diameter 
arotmd the stem of each plant, letting it lie flat on the ground to keep the 

I Bur. Ent Cir. 103. 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 231 




a o 

Colorado Potato Beetle 
{Leptinotarsa decemlineata).^ 

-Beetle. B — Larva. C — Pupa. Enlarged. 



maggots from reaching the roots. Clean up all cabbage stmnps in the fall 

and plow deeply. Rotate crops. 

The Colorado Potato Beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Say.). — With- 
out doubt the worst enemy 
of the potato is the robust 
yellow-striped beetle which, 
together with its larvae or 
slugs, feeds upon the leaves. 
The insect is too well known 
to need description. 

Treatment. — Apply ar- 
senicals either as a dust or 
as a spray. Hand picking or 
"bugging "may be resorted 
to in a small garden patch. 
Bur. Ent. Cir. 87, BuU. 82, Pt. 1. 

Flea Beetles. — Small dark-colored insects which as adults feed upon 
the foUage of many truck crops and weeds. The larvas feed upon the roots. 
The name is derived from the active way in which the insect hops about. 
In this respect it re- 
sembles a flea. 

Treatment. — C lean 
up weeds about the gar- 
den that may form a 
breeding place for the 
pests. Aj^ply arsenicals 
to plants as a spray, 
using Bordeaux mixture 
preferably, which acts 
as a repellent. 

Harlequin Cabbage 
Bug (Murgantia histrion- 
ica, Hahn.) . — This gaud- 
ily marked bug is easily 
recognized by its bright 
colors of red, yellow and 
blue. It feeds upon cab- 
bage, cauliflower, mus- 
tard and other related 
plants. 

Treatment. — Plant a trap crop of mustard or turnips in the spring and 
fall and when the bugs have become numerous spray with pure kerosene. 
Hand picking may be profitable in the spring. Methods of clean culture 
should be practiced, especially in the fall, tall cabbage stalks and weeds 






Hop Plant Borer (Hydrcecia immanis).^ 

A — Enlarged segment of larva. B — Larva. C — Pupa. 
D — Adult. Natural size. 



'Bur. Ent. Cir. 87. 



2 Bur. Ent. BuU. 7 



232 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



being destroyed in order to starve out the hug. Destroy trash where it 
might liibcrnatc. 

Bur. Ent. Cir. 103. 

The Hop Aphis {riiowdon humnli, Solir.). — This plant lou.se is found 
on tlic phiiu ill .spring, hut Hies to the liop phmt in early summer, where 
it turns the leaves yellow, causing them to fall. 




W 1.NL.LK.S.S I'U'.Jt.ii.Nv or WiNui:u lloi' AriiUAS iUuM Ahl;unate Host.' 

Trcnlnunt. — Wlicn ajjliids ai)}K>ar spniy thoroughly with 40 i>or rent 
nicotine solution diluted 1 part to 800 i)arts water, 
liur. Ent. BuU. HI. 

The Hop Plant Borer (Ilydro'cin inuiiafiii^, Oct.). — The ho]! jilant is 
attacked in three? ])laces hy this Injrer during the ix'riod of dovel()i)ment of 
the ins(!ct. llarly in the so;uson it horos int^j the tender tips, causing them 
to droop; after a short time it falls to the ground and lK)res into the stem 
at the crown. Later it Iwres out of the stem and goes ImjIow the ground, 
f(ie<nng ju.st alM)ve the old roots, whore it nearly sin-iM-s the ])lant. 

Tnntmnit. — In the spring search for tliu allectcd tii)s and crush the 
insects in the .stem. 

Rur. Ent. Hull. 7, p. 40. 

>Bur. Jrjit. fiulL 111. 




Potato Tuber Moth 

{Phthorimcea operculella) .^ 

Imported Cabbage Web WoKM A-Moth. B-Larva, lat- 

(Hellula undahs).^ eral view. C— Larva, dorsal 

A— Mature moth. B— Larva, lateral view. view. D— Pupa. E^ F— Ses- 

C— Larva, dorsal view. D— Pupa. All three ments of larva, enlarged. (R'-- 

times natural size. drawn from Riley and Howard.) 




Work op the Potato-Tuber Moth. 2 
Exterior view of potato. 



iBur. Ent. Bull. 19. ^ Farm. Bull. 5«T. 



233 



234 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 




The Imported Cabbage Web Worm illdhda nndnlis, Fab.).— This 
worm fcods uixjij cahban*', turiiii)s and (tther similar croi)s, spinning a web 
under wliicli it retires when nut feetling. 

Treatment. — Same as for cal)bage lotjjwr. 
Ent. Bull. '2:\, p. M. 

The Imported Cabbage Worm {Pontin ni/xr, Linn.). — Of all the insects 
on cahhage, tiiis is the 
worst i)est. It is the lar\'a; 
of the wliitc butterfly 
seen fluttering alxjut over 
fields of cabi)age during 
sjn'ing and summer. 

Tnnttncnt. — .Same as 
for cabbage looper. 
liur. Ent. rir. 00. 

The Melon Aphis 
(Aplii.s gossjji/ii, Glov.). — 
This i)lant louse feeds not 
only on melons but on 
cotton, .strawberries and a 
numljcr of otlier ])lants. 

Treatment. — Before 
the leaves are badlj' curled 
spray them with nicotine 
solution, turning the vines 
over if necessaiy, so as to 
hit the under sides of the 
leaves. In .small gardens 
fumigate under tui) with 
carbon bisuli)hide, using 

about a tea.s]K)<>nful to above; bolow. cg^ ius .seen from Kide. (' — Ljirvii in 
each cubic foot of space, natural position on onbljauL' le.if. D— S.is|K'n.l.Hl 
,T. 1 p 1 ohrvsalis. A, C , 13 — Arc mightlv enlarged. 13 — More 

lobacco fumes may al.so onlargeil. 

be use(l. 

Hur. Ijit. Cir. SO. 

The Potato Tuber Moth {I'/ithorinura opcrculclla, Zell.).— Potato 
growing is now menaced in California, Washington and southern Texas 
by this in.sect, which \H)rvs into the vines .and tulK'i*s of ]M)tatoes. It al.so 
fctids ui)on tomato, egg])lant and tobacco, and on the latter plant is 
known as the spWi worm. 

Treatment. — No satisfactory method of tix'atment is known, but the 
injury may l)C partly prevented by clean methods of cultivation, crop 
rotatif)n and fuminatio!! of infcntcd ttibcrs. The l.Mtter is by far tin' lH\><t 
remedv. For a full diacuflbiuu of methods of control ace Fuim. Bull. 557. 




Impouted Caiih.'vcte Wohm 
{I'unlia mptt).^ 
A — Feiniilc? butterfly. H — .\lx)ve, egg iw seen from 



ifiur. £ot. Cir. M. 




Squash Vine Borer 
{Meliitia satyriniformis).^ 

A — Male moth. B — Female moth with wings folded in 
natural position when at rest. C — Eggs shown on bit of 
squash stem. D — Full grown larva — in situ in vine. 
E — -Pupa. F — Pupal cell. All J larger than natural size. 




Striped Cucumber Beetle 
(Diabrotica vitlata).^ 

A — Beetle. B — Larva. C — Pupa. D — Anal 
proleg. A, B, C — Much enlarged. D — More 
enlarged. 



Su gar-Beet Web Worm 

(Loxostege siicticalis) .' 
Moth twice natural size. 



1 Bur. Ent. Cir. 38. 



^Bur. Ent. Cir. 31. 



'Bur. Ent. Bull. 109, Part 2. 



235 



2M 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



The Squash Bug (Anasa tristis, De O.). — This well-known insect is 
often a serious pest of squashes and pumpkins and can nearly always be 
found upon the vinos (luring the summer. 

TrcattmiU. — Pick oil and destroy thu eggs in the spring. Trap the 




CANTAixmpR Leaves, SnowiN<i ('i ituNti Cai'skd h^ Melon 
Arms; AriUDKs on Lowkk Sirka<k.' 

Slightly rcriiiroH. 

bugs under lx)ards placed near the vines and gather them up in the morning. 
Protect cucumbers and melons by plant iiip; early squa.shes among them, 
from wliich adults slioiild bo jiickcd. Sjjray with kerosene emulsion. 
Bur. Knt. Tip. W.). 

Squash Vine Borer {MdiUia sali/riniformis, Ilbu.). — In many localities 

> Bux. hMi. Cir. bU. 




Nest and Larv^ of Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar in Crotch of 
Wild Cherry Tree.' 



1 Farm. Bull. 662. 



237 



238 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



1 



this is the most serious pest of squash vines. Tlie lan'ie huro into the 
vines, causing them to rot arul hrcak off easily. 

TrcalnwiU. — llake uj) and destroy vines as soon as possil)ie in the fall. 
Plow deeply in the spring. Ilotatc crops; plant early squashes among 
other vines as a trap crop. 

Bur. Ent. Cir. 3S. 

The Striped Cucumber Beetle (Dinhrofica vi'ttnla, Fab.). — A black- |j 
and-yellow strijK'd hci'tk' two-liftlis of an inch long, injuring cucunilxirs, ' 
squiushes and melons by feeding on the young jilaiits as they come up. 

Treatment. — Cover tlie hills of young jilants with nets to ])rotect them 
from beetles. Dust 
heavily witli air- 
slaked lime and 
tobacco dust while 
the dew is on. S])ray 
the i)lants with ar- 
senate of lead 3 to 5 
l)ounds to 50 gallons. 

liur. Ent. Cir. 31. 
Sugar Beet Web 
Worm {Loxoatcge 
sticticah',<i, Linn.). — 
This insect defoliates 
beets and webs them 
together at times, 
causing notable in- 
jury. It also feeds 
on onions, cabl)nge, 
alfalfa, i)igwe('d and 
careless weed. 

Treatrnfut. — Plow the infested \v\\d in late fall or 
dust the plants with arsenicals. 

Bur. Ent. Bull. 109, Pt. 0. 




Ari'i.E Maggot, or Railroad Woum 
( liluigohl is pomoiiclln ) . ' 

A — Adult. B — Larva or maRRot. C — FunnrI of ocph- 
alio Pi)irafl«'. D — Pupariuin. E — Portion of applo .show- 
iiiK injury })y niaJiKols. A, B, C — Enlarged. D— Still more 
cnlar^icd. L — Ilc'durcd. 



winter. Si)ray or 



FRUIT INSECTS 

Apple Maggot, or Railroad Worm [Ixluujolclis potnonrlla, Walsh.). — The 
larva of a two-wingod fly. It infests sununer and early fall apples and 
occ.'usionally winter apples, tunneling through the flesh of fruit and causing ' 
it to fall. * 

TrcalmcrU. — Spray the trees during the first week in July with arsenate 
of lead, 4 pounds to 100 gallons. Pick u]) infested fruit every two or three 
days and feed it to hogs or bury it dee])Iy. 
Bur. Ent. Cir. 101. 

Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar {Malacusoma Americana. Fab.). — The 

I Bur. Eat. Cir. 101. 




Stages and Work of Spring Canker-Worm (Paleacrita vernata).^ 
1— Esq; mass on bark scale. 2— The larvts or canker-worms. 3— Pups. 
4-Female moths. 5-Male moth. 6-Work of canker-worms on ^-M^Pl^ Wes 
when small. 7-Later work of the larvse only the midribs of leaves being 
left. 1-5— Considerably enlarged. 6, 7— Reduced. 



iBur. Ent. BiUl. 68 Pt 2. 



239 



240 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 






lan'a of moth. It feeds on the foliage of apple and a nuinlx^r of other trees. 
It nuikcslarRcnestsor webtentsin which caterjMllars stay when not feeding. 
Trcalnu'til. — Spray the trees with arsenate of lead when the nests 
first apiK'ar. Make later application if necessary. 

I'nrm. Hull. m2. 

The Brown-Tail Moth {Euprociis chrysorrhccaf Linn.). — This well- 
known (•ateri)illar was accidentally introduced into Massachusetts from 
Kur()])e. It luus now s])rea(l over a larKc jjaii of New Iji^land and is still 
extending its territoiy. The moths appear early in July and the female 
deposits nia.sses of eggs on 
the under side of leaves. 
The young caterpillars web 
terniiiial leaves together 
and siK'nd the winter in 
those nests in i)ai-tially 
grown condition. They 
resume feeding in tlie sjjring 
and soon reach their full 
develoi)ment. 

Treatment. — C u t out 
and burn all the winter 
nests before the buds start. 
Spray tlie trees with arse- 
nate of lead, 4 pounds to 
100 gallons. Band the 
trees with tanglefoot to pre- 
vent tlie ascent of cater- 
pillars from other trees. 

Farm, liiill. 2G4. 

Canker- Worm, The 
Spring {I\ilcocrita vcrnuta, Peck), and The Fall (Alsophila pometan'a, 
llaiiis). — The larva? of canker-worm moths arc measuring worms about 
an inch long, dark-colored and variously striped. The adult males are 
winged, females wingless. They defoliate apple trees. 

Treattncnt. — Cultivate orchards well in summer to destroy pupa. 
Apply si)rays of arsenate of lead 4 f)r 5 ]x)unds to 100 gallons water, first 
before the blo.s.soms ojwn ; second, just after ])etals fall. Ajiply iiarriers of 
tanglefoot or cotton batting to the trunks of trees to prevent the ascent 
of the moths to lay eggs. 

Bur. Ent. Cir. 9; Dur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. 2. 

The Cherry Fruit Flies ( fihtK/olrd's ringiilnia, T^oew, and R. faustn, O. 
S.). — Two-wiiigcd Hies deposit eggs in cherries. Maggots develoj) in the 
fruit on the tree, causing it to rot on one side. They enter groun^l to 
pupate. 

' Farm. Hull 2ft4. 



Bkow.n-T.ml Moth 
{Eu])roctis cfirysorrhopa.y 

Female moth above, male moth below, larva or 
catorpilliir at right, slightly enlarge*!. 



OS 




Cherry Fruit Fly 
(Rhagoletis cingulala).^ 
A— Fly B— Maggot from side. C— Anterior spiracles of 
same. D— Fuparium. E— Posterior spiracular plates of pupa. 
All enlarged. 




A B 

Fruit Tree Bark Beetle 

{Scolytus rugulosus).^ 

A— Adult beetle. B— Work in twig 
of apple. Natural size. 




An Imported 

Currant 
. Worm. 2 



J 



iBur Ent. BuU. 44. ''Bur. Ent. Cir. 29. 

3 Courtesy of Connecticut Agricultural Experiment fetation. 



241 



242 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Trratnutit. — Ai)])!}' arsoiuite of lead to the trees, either \v\th or with- 
out sweeteniuK, 4 or 5 ]X)un(is to 1()0 gallons, at the time the flies are 
cnierKinp. Two applications usually necessary. 

Hur. Ent. Hull. 41, pp. 70-75; Cornell AgriculturulExp. Sta. Bull. 325. 

The Codling Moth, or Apple Worm {Cnrpocapsa pntnotulla, Linn.). 
— This is tlie insect the larva of wliicii is resiK)nsil)h' for most of the 
wormy apples, pears and quinces. The female motlis lay their eggs uixin 
the leaves and fruit. Thelar\'a> upon liatchinp; begin at once to hunt for 
the fruit, which they enter mostly through the caly.x cup. In spraying 
it is very neccs.sary to fill this cup with the jjoison, as it is liere that 
the larva} mostly take their firet meal. The time when this first and most 
important sjiray should he made is just after the petals have fallen and 
before the caljTC cup closes. In most parts of the country' there are two 
broods of insects, but in the South tliere may Ix) tlirec and in places 
even four. 

Treatment. — Spray with areenatc of lead, 4 pounds t<j 1(X) gallons, first 
just as the petals have fallen; second, three to four weeks after the petals 
have fallen; tliinl, eight to nine weeks after i)etals have fallen. 
Bur. Ent. Bull. 115, Pts. 1 and 2; Farm. Bull. 492. 

Currant Worm, The Imported (Pteromis ribesii, Scop.). — This currant 
worm is the most destructive in.sect enemy of the currant, but is easily 
controlled. 

Treatment — At the time the worms begin to ai)pear si)ray or dust 
with an arsenical. 

Report of the Conn. State EntoinoloRist, 1902, pp. 170-172. 

The Flat-Headed Apple Tree Borer (Chrysobothn's femorata, Fab.). — 
A larva aiM)ut in\c iiidi long, slightly flattened. The front end nuich 
enlarged. It usually attacks trees ])ai-tly tlead or in jKtor condition, rarely 
sound trees. As a i)reventive measure, keep trees healthy by use of 
fertilizers and thorough cultivation. 

Treatment. — Dig the borers from burrows witli sliar]) instrument. 
Bur. Ent. Cir. .32. 

The Fruit Tree Bark Beetle {Sroli/tuft ruauldsus, Uatz.). — The small 
dark-brown bcellc which bores shot holes in fruit trees of nearly all kinds, 
like the flat-headed borer, works only in dead or dying wood. As a pre- 
ventive, kec]) tlie trees healthy; dean uj) all dead wood about orchards; 
cut out and burn all infested wood. 

Treatment. — No satisfactory treatment is known. 
Bur. Ent. Cir. 29, Uevi.scd. 

The Gipsy Moth (Porthetria duspnr, Linn.). — The gipsy moth, like the 
brown-tail, is a serious enemy of forest and fruit trees. I*"gg ma.s.s(>s are 
(lei)osited in the fall on trunks of trees, on fences or wheiTver a roughened 
surface can Imj found. They hatch in the spring and the larva; feed on the 
foliage of various trees. 

TrcaXimnt. — liuut out the egg maescs iii winter time aud soak >nth 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 243 



coal tar creosote. Spray the trees in the spring with arsenate of lead as 
soon as the eggs hatch, using 10 pounds to 100 gallons of water. 

Bur. Ent. Bull. 87; Farm. Bull. 564. 

The Grape Berry Moth {Polychrosis viteana, Clem.). — A larva about 




Grape Berry Moth 
(Polychrosis viteana).''- 

1 and 2— Adult, or moth. 3— Full grown larvae. 4--Pupse. 
Ail greatly enlarged. 

one-fourth of an inch long, works in the berry of grape, webbing several 
together. It is the cause of most of the wormy grapes in the eastern 
sections of the country. 

Treafmen^.— Spray with arsenate of lead, pounds to 100 gallons. 

iBur, £nt. Bull. 115. 



244 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



First ai)i)li("ilioii shortly after fruit sets; second, alx)ut ten daj'S later, and 
third, when the fruit is about half grown or when the second brood eggs 
are hatching. 

lUir. Ent. Hull. IIC, Pt. 2, Farm. Bull. 2S-J. 

Grape Leaf Hopper {Typhloq/ba comes, Say.). — This active little 



■B 


^H^^K^^^^^V^^^'^^BCS 


■ 


^^it*§^ '^ 


^^v"^ 

^^^^^^^^^H 





Injury to Grapes bt Larvjej op Second Brood of Grapb>- 
Hkuhy Moth.' 

Just previous to harvesting of fruit. 

hopi^er is known in all parts of the country where grnpc^; are pjown. It 
is yellowish in color, marked with green stripes. The leaves of the grapes 
arc injured by the puncture made by the lioi)i)er in fetnling on the under 
side of the leaf, cau.sing them to turn spotted and yellow and finally fall off. 
Trcalitunt. — Spray the vines thor()Uf!;lily about the iirst week in .luly, 
when tlu; maxinnnn number of young hoi)pci"s are on the leaf, with a 

>Bur. Eat. Bull. 110, Pt. 2. 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 245 



solution of 40 per cent nicotine, diluted 1 part to 
1000 parts water. Clean up trash and weeds in 
fence corners and practice clean culture generally. 
Dept. BuU. 19. 

The Grape Vine Flea Beetle {Haltica chalybea, 
111.). — A blue metallic beetle about one-fourth of an 
inch long. It feeds on buds and tender shoots in 
early spring. The grubs feed later upon the leaves. 
Treatment. — Spray wath arsenate of lead to kill 
the adults and grubs on the leaves during May and 
June. The beetles may be captured in sheets or pans 
by jarring the vines. 

New York (Geneva) Exp. Sta. Bull. 331, pp. 494-514. 
The Lesser Apple Worm (Enarmonia prunivora, 
Walsh). — This insect is closely related to the cod- 
ling moth and has very much the same life history. 
Treatment. — Spray as for the codling moth, but 
take especial pains to make the second spray very 
thorough, three to four weeks after petals have fallen. 
Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. 5; Bur. Ent. BuH. 80, Pt. 3. 

The Peach Tree Borer {Sanninoidea exitiosa,^a,j.). — The larvae of this 
insect are found at the crown of peach, plum and cherry trees, boring 




Grape Leaf Hopper 
(Typhlocyba comes). ^ 

Adult, winter form. 
Greatly enlarged. 




Lesser Apple Worm 
(Enarmonia prunivora) . ^ 

A — ^Adult, or moth. B — Same with wings folded. C — Larva. D — Pupa in 
cocoon ready for transformation to adult. E — Young apple, showing at calyx 
end empty pupa skin from which moth has emerged. Enlarged about three 
times. 



>Dept. BuU. 19, 



2 Bur. Ent. Bull. 68. 



246 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



^ 



bcno:ith tlu> hark. Tho cxtiTnal indioationfl of their prcsoncc arc the mass 
of i^ap which is foiiiinonly nhii at the l)a.se of the tree and the fra.ss or worm- 
wood that has been worked out through holes in the bark. Preventive 
means that have given some measure of success are various styles of pro- 
t^rtors ])lace(l around the base of the trees, and coating washes applied to 
the trunk. Tlie latter arc not satisfaetor}\ 

Treatment. — I^eniovc the ground from the crown of tiie trc(> in the 
spring and fall and dig out the borers with a shaqi knife. 
Giorgiii Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 73; N. J. Agri. Exp. Sta. Bull. 235. 

Pear Leaf Blister Mite (En'ophyes pyri, Pagensterher). — This small 
mite, only xiT-inch in Iniglh, is the cause of the rough, blistered surface 
of pear and apples leaves. \Vhen the attack is severe the trees Ijecome so 
brown that thej' 
have the api)ear- 
ance at a dis- 
tance of having 
been swept by 
fire. 

Treatment. 
— 8i)ray in tlic 
spring or fall 
with concen- 
trated coniincM- 
cial linie-sul])}iur 
testing 33° 
Bauni6, diluted 
at the rate of 1- 
10 (.r 11. 

Plant Lice 
{Aphididcc). — 

Many si^ecies of plant lice are found upon the various fniit trees grown 
in this eountrj'. They feed by sucking the sap from the leaves and 
stems and thus do considerable injury at times. Some sjx^cies curl the 
leaves aVjout them so that they arc very- difficult to reach with a spray 
unless the treatment is made before the attack becomes severe. The 
treatment for all aerial forms is ])ractically the same. 

Treatment. — Sj)ray carefully with a 40 ]>er cent nicotine sulphate solu- 
tion diluted at the rate of 1 part to 800 parts of water, lx>ing sure to touch 
all insects with the spray. A kerosene cnmlsion spray is also good if used 
at the 8 or 10 per cent strength. 

Plum Curculio (Conotrachrhts nenuphar, Hubst.). — On apples this 
insect injures the fruit by defomiing or scarring it by its feeding and egg- 
laying pimctures. 

Treatment. — Spray as for codling moth, except that one additional 

* Bur. Eat. Cir. 17. 




Pka< H TuKK BnltKK 

(Sanninaidea exitiosa).^ 

A — Adult fonialo. B — .\dult malo. C — Full fjTown larva. 
T> — IVrnalc pupa. E — Malo i)upa. F — Pupa skin extruded 
jjarUally from cocoon. All natural size. 




> 

w 

o 

02 

o 
o 



O 

o 
w 

H 






o 

O 

d 
o 




248 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



spray should be given before the blossoms open or at the time the cluster 
buds have oixMicd out. 

On i)luin, ]K'a(h and chcrrj' trees most of the injury is caused by the 
grubs insitlc the fruit. 

Treatment. — For ])luni.s, spray with ai-senalc of lead, two ]xjunds to 
50 gallons; first, soon after petals fall; second, a week or ten days 
later. 

For cherries, same as for ])him. 

For jK'achos, first, spray just as caljTces or shucks are she<lding; 




Rose Chafer 
(Mdcroilactyhts sulhspinosuti).^ 

A — Adult, or hortlo. H — Lurva. C, I) — Mouth parts of hirv.n. E — Pupa. 
F — Injury lo Iciives unci blossoms of Knipo, with ho(!tlos nl work. A, U, h — 
Much c'iil;irnf<l. C, L) — More cnliirgiMl. 1' — .Slightly rodurod. 

second, si)ray tiirc(^ weeks later, ^^'hen spraying ix?aehcs, sclf-lxjiled lime- 
sulphur is usually added to jirevent fungous troubles. 

Tiinn. Hull. ttO, F:inn. Hull. 192. 

The Rose Chafer {.\f<uro(I<ictylus suhspinofim, Fab.). — This l)eotle is 
recognized l)y his long legs and yellowisii-gray color. Often in sandy 
regions the Ijcetlcs swarm ujwn the grajK's in great nuinlx.'rs, causing 
serious injury. 

tUur. Eat. Bull. 07. 





iBur. Ent. Bull. 62, 



249 



250 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Trcntment. — Spray with arsenate of lead at the rate of 8 or 10 poun( 
to KM) j;allons of water, to which is added 1 or 2 gallons of cheap rnolasscsj 
liur. Ent. Bull. \M, Pt. 3. 

Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer {Saperda cayuUda, Fab.). — ^The 
atlult of the rouiKl-headetl borer is a handsome striix?d l)eetle. It lays it( 
eggs on the bark at the base of apple trees and tiie young gnibs eat througl 
and enter the wootl. Tiieir ])rescnce can be tletected by dark areas oj 
discolored jilaces on the bark and usually by the presence of small chip 
or frass worked out through the holes. 

Treatment. — When the borer is locatetl it should bo removed with a 
sharp knife. Many washes and ])rotectors have been tried to i)revent 
injury from this insect. Uliite lead has been strongly recommended for 
this puri)ose. 

Bur. Ent. Cir. 32, Farm. Bull. 675. 

The San Jose Scale (Aspidiolus pcrniciosus, Comst.). — This insect 
has a wide distril)Uli<)n throughout the country and is a serious enemy of 
fruit trees in many states. The scale is nearly circular in outline and about 
the size of the head of a pin. When it is plentiful ujxjn trees it Ix^comes 
encrusted on the trunk and branches, giving the tree a scurfy appearance. 
The insect untler the protecting scale feeds by sucking the sap of the tree, 
so a contact in.secticide is necessary' for its control. 

Treatment. — Spray the trees during the dormant season with concen- 
trated lime-sulphur giving a Baumd test of 33°, diluted at the rate of 1 
gallon to 8 or 9 of water. The so-calL'd miscible oils (mineral oils which 
have lx;en so treated that they may be readily mixed with water) are also 
used successfully. 
Bur. Ent. Bull. 62. 

REFERENCES 

"Inserts Injurious to the Household and .VnnoyinK to Mun." Ilenick. 

"Injurious Insects: How to Rcronnize and ("ontrol." O'Kane. 

"Miinuid of Fruit Insects." Slinnerhind :ind Oosby. 

"In.s<Mts Injurious to VcKetables." Chittenden. 

"Manual for Study of Insects." Comstock. 

"American Insects." KeiloKR. 

"Insect Fests of Farm, darden nnd Orchard." Sanderson. 

Californi.'i Kxpt. Station Bulletin 255. "The Citricola Scale." 

California Kxnt. Station Bulletin 25S. "Mealy Buns of Citrus Tree." 

Connecticut Lxpt. Station Bulletin ISO. "Gipsy Moth." 

Iowa Hxnt. Station Bulletin 102. "Strawberry SIuks." 

Illinois Kxpt. Station Bulletin 171. "M<'th<)d for Controllinc Melon I, ice." 

Maine Fxpt. Station Bulletin 212. "Pink and (Irecn .\pliid of Fotato." 

New York Expt. Station Bulletin 402. "Controlling Flunt Lice in Apple Orch.inl " 

Ohio Expt. Station Bulletins: 

154. "Iiiii)ortant Greenhouse Pests." 

264. "Orchard Bark Beetles and liorers." 
Utah Expt. Station Bulletin i:<S. "Control of Grasshoppers." 
Canadian Dept. of A(;n"i' "Iturc Bulletins: 

150. "Common Fuurous and Insect Pests." 

187. "The C<KllinK Moth." 

219. "San Jos6 Scale and Oyster Shell Scales." 



INSECT PESTS AND THEIR CONTROL 251 

Canadian Dept. of Agriculture Bulletin: 

227. "Cherry Fruit Flies." 
Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture: 

492. "Insect Enemies of Fruit and Foliage of the Apple." 

498. " Methods of Exterminating the Texas Fever Tick." 

543. "Common White Grubs." 

557. "Potato Tuber Moth." 

564. "The Gipsy and Brown Tail Moth: Their Control." 

650. "The San Jos6 Scale and Its Control." 

658. "Cockroaches." 

659. "The True Clothes Moth." 

662. "The Apple Tree Tent Caterpillar." 

668 . " The Squash Vine Borer. ' ' 

671. "Harvest Mites or Chiggers." 

674. "Control of Citrus Thrips in California and Arizona." 

675. "The Round-Headed Apple Tree Borer." 



CHAPTER 20 

Insecticides and fungicides 

By H. Garman 

Professor of Entomology, University of KrntucJcy 

The word insecticide luis come to meiin any chemical or other sub- 
stance used to destroy insects that are hurtful or objectionable in any way 
to man. Tliis definition excludes substances such as sticky fiy-jiaper that 
may lx> emi)loyed to entrap pests and would, acconhng to some entomolo- 
gists, exclude also simple deterrents, such as oil of citronella, us^'d to keep 
insects away by their offensive odors. In a general way, however, every 
substance employed to prevent the injuries of insects is an insecticide and 
in this view it does not matter whether or not they kill, deter or entrap. 

The insecticides most used and valued by ])ractical men either kill 
as poisons when eaten with food, or else destroy when brought in contact 
with the IxKlies of insects, in which case they are sometimes called contact 
insecticides. 

A group of insecticides of which the effective ingredient is arsenic has 
proved esi)ocially popular and useful in sui)i)ressing insects which feed by 
gnawing away and devom'ing the leaves of ])lants. 

Paris Green. — Of these the one best known and most used is Paris 
green, Schwoinfurth green, or Im})erial green, French green and Emerald 
green. It was first used in the arts, and l)ecau.se of its cheapness and 
poisonous projx^rties was early tried on the Colorado ])otato beetle (about 
18(38) ]M-oving a very satisfactory means of supjiressing the pest when used 
either as a dry powder or when stirred into water. It contains a little 
soluble arsenic however, and in water this is liable to burn leaves to which 
it is ai)i)lied, hence care nmst be exercised not to u.se too imich. Four to 
five ounces of the powder in a barrel of water is commonly regarded as 
enough ; if more is used a jwund or two of freshly-slaked lime may Ixi added 
to neutralize its caustic effect. 

Arsenate of Lead. — Paris green has two defects: Its burning action 
is often hard to guard against, and its weight causes it to settle quickly 
when used in water, rendering the spray ])roduced uneven in strength. 
Stirrers connected with spray pumps obviate the latter trouble, but some- 
times increase the labor of operating p»nnj)s. The addition of lime, as 
already suggested, lessens tlie hurning action, though the lime may, if care 
is not exerci.sed, increase the labor of apj^lying. 

Arsenate of lead has neither of these defects. It is practically insol- 
uble in water, (]iios not burn foliage, and it is so finely siibflividod that it 

(252) 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 253 

remains suspended much better than Paris green. It has the additional 
advantage of adhering to leaves longer than Paris green, and thus fewer 
applications are required. A single spraying with this substance, if applied 
at the right time, is for some plants sufficient for a whole season. The 
arsenate of lead paste is commonly used with water in the proportion of 
2| to 3 pounds in 50 gallons. As found in the market it contains about 50 
per cent of water. 

It requires more by weight to destroy insects than Paris green, but 
the cost per pound is less and hence the actual cost for materials amounts 
to about the same, whichever poison is used. Its advantages are so 
decided in other directions that it is now supplanting Paris green in popular 
favor. For the injuries of most gnawing insects working on foliage this 
insecticide may be safely recommended. 

To meet the objections sometimes made to arsenate of lead paste, 
a powdered arsenate of lead has recently been offered to the public by 
manufacturers of insecticides. The paste when dried out is lumpy and is 
not in this condition easy to mix with water. In the powdered form it is 
not open to this objection and may, besides, be dusted over plants without 
the addition of water. 

There are serious objections to the use of poisonous dusts, however, 
though in practice they have advantages that always commend them to 
workmen. The weight of the water to be carried when using liquid sprays 
increases the labor, of course, and this ought to be lessened if it can be done 
without diminishing the effectiveness of the applications, and also without 
increasing the danger to those making the applications. The inhaling of 
either dry Paris green or arsenate of lead is a serious matter, and if con- 
tinued long is certain to lead to ill health. Liquid sprays go more directly 
and evenly to the plants and stay there. They may be made just as 
promptly effective as the dusts if used when the injury is beginning. They 
are not so likely to be inhaled. 

Arsenite of Zinc. — This poison has somewhat recently been recom- 
mended as a substitute for Paris green and arsenate of lead, and appears 
to be about equally good and somewhat cheaper than either. It is a finely 
divided white powder as put on the market and remains in suspension 
about as well as arsenate of lead, having thus some advantage over Paris 
green. It contains a little water-soluble arsenic and has been claimed to be 
less injurious to foliage even than arsenate of lead, possessing at the same 
time about the same killing power. For use it is stirred first into a little 
water and allowed to soak for a time, then is stirred into the water in which 
it is to be used, about one pound of the powder being added to 50 gallons of 
water. It contains nearly the same quantity of arsenic as Paris green. 
Like arsenate of lead, it remains in suspension better if a little soap is 
dissolved in the water into which it has been stirred. It has of late been 
quoted by dealers at from 20 to 25 cents per pound. 

London Purple. — This arsenite came into use for injurious insects 



254 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



banl 
5ive| 



somewhat later than Paris green (about 1878), but is less used now than 
formerly Iwcause of its lark of uniformity in composition and its excessi 
burning of foliage. Its nffertive ingredient as an insecticicle is arsenic in 
the form of lime arsenite and hme arsenate, of which it contains alxjut 40 
per cent, nearly half of which is soluble. It is the soluble arscnious and 
arsenic oxides that make tiiis insecticide so injurious to the foliage and 
rentier neces.sary the addition of lime. 7'iie amount of pure arsenic 
present li;us l)ccn found to bo al-)out 'J*J jkt cent. F<ir use it is customary to 
reconunentl uljout one-cjuarter i)ound each of London purjile and fresh lime 
in from 50 to 75 gallons of water. 

White Arsenic. — The use of this poison has been recommendeil from 
time to time for gnawing insects, but tlie time and lalxir required in lK)iling 
it with milk of lime (thus ]iroducing an arsenite of lime) in order to avoitl its 
burning ctlcct on foliage has ])revented its general cmi)loyment as an insect- 
icide. It can be made to accomi)lish the same i)urpose as Paris green and 
arsenate of lead, without injur\' to foliage, by boiling for a half hour 1 
pound of commercial arsenic and 2 pountls of fresh lime in 4 gallons of 
water, diluting witli water finally to make 100 gallons. 

Sulphur. — Flowers of sulplmr lia.s been u.sed for many years as an in- 
secticide, es]Micially for mites infesting hothouse plants. \Mien dusted on 
plants it does no liarm to the leaves, Imt is not as effective a.s could be 
desired. Wlien burned in hothouses it may do severe injury to plants. 
These defects have led to its neglect by entomologists. AVlien suljihur is 
boiled with lime, however, it produces a lime sul])hide, in wliich condition 
it becomes one of the best of insecticides for use in winter against scale 
insects. 

Lime-sulphur Wash. — In this condition thousands of barrels of the 
boiled sulphur and lime are sold to fruit growers every year, who use it 
largely as a remedy against San Jos(5 scale. A concentrated solution 
is prepared by Innling in large iron kettles, tanks or other ves.sels, 50 jwunds 
of fresli lime, 100 ])ounds of suliiliur and 50 gallons of water. Part of the 
water is heated, then the lime is added and is followed by the sulphur, the 
whole being stirred continually while boiling, the time employed being 
from fifty minutes to an hour. Finally, after adding enough hot water to 
make 50 gallons, the solution is strained and set aside vmtil ready to use. 
Home-made solutions may n<^t test higher than 27 to 30° Baumd, but wlien 
carefully made go higlicr and may even reacli 34 or 35° Baum6, the tliffer- 
ences Iwing apparently due to differences in the quality of limes used. 

The manufacturers now follow about the same formula in pnulucing 
their concentrated ])roducts, but because of having l)etter facilities will 
jx'rhaps average higher in concentration than the fruit grower, although 
analysis of samples bought in the market have sometimes shown that they 
did not test as high as good liome-nuide lime-suljilmr. 

These concentrated solutions are of a dee]) reddish-yellow color and 
for use fiuist l>e greatly diluted with water. It is customary in spraying 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 



255 



for San Jose scale to use one part of the solution to eight or ten of water 
and to apply during open weather in February or March, while the trees are 
still dormant. For summer use they must be diluted with from 30 to 50 
parts of water to avoid injury to the foliage, but lose much of their value 
as insecticides when thus weakened. The concentrated solution is regarded 
as the most effective remedy for scale injury now in use. 

It should be added that there has somewhat recently appeared a 
so-called "soluble sulphur" which is recommended for the same uses as 




A LiME-suLPHm Cooking Outfit.* 



lime-sulphur. It promises well, but has not been tested long enough and 
carefully enough to justify veiy positive statements as to its merits. 

Tobacco Extracts. — For use against soft-bodied insects such as plant 
Hce there is no more useful insecticide than extracts made from the midribs 
of tobacco leaves. These extracts contain as their effective ingredient 
nicotine and differ -^ddely in the percentage of nicotine they contain. 
Home-made extracts or decoctions are made by placing a couple of pounds 
of the midribs in a wooden bucket full of boiling hot water, alloTN-ing it to 
stand over night. The percentage of nicotine under such treatment will 
probably not be more than 0.07 per cent, but it is a very useful wash for 
plants infested with aphides, does no harm at all to leaves, and where 

iFrom Farmers* Bulletin 650, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



256 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

tobacco is grown and the midribs can l)c easily secured is one of the very! 
lx?st insecticides for uses of tliis sort. The wliole leaf makes a somewhat ' 
stronger extract (0.12 per cent) as detennined bj- t«sts recently made at 
the N'irginia Station. Soaking .seems to extract as much of tlie nicotine as 
boiling. When i)lants are U) l)e treated on a larger .scale it Ikvohios imix)r- 
tant to know just how nnich nicotine is i)rescnt in a wa.sh, and manufactured 
extracts, some of them containing 40 jwr cent of nicotine, are demanded. 
For the apple leaf louse, tlie lettuce lou.se, the rose aphis and otlier similar 
I^ests, these extracts arc safe and effective. For thick-skinned insects they 
arc not so satisfactory'. 

Tobacco is often u.sed in other ways as a remedy for insect injuries, 
but is open to some objections when so employed. Flori.sts have long used 
the midribs (often called "stems") for making a smudge for tlie destruction 
of ])lant lice. The tobacco is sim])ly liurncd in a ]H'rforatcd iron ves.scl. 
The smoke leaves a strong smell of tobacco on flowei-s, which is sometimes 
objected to by buyers. The odor can l)e avoided by using the extract 
diluted with water and driven off as a vapor by dropping a hot iron into a 
])iiii containing it. 

Pyrethrum. — Under the name Persian insect powder or simply insect 
powder this insecticide is to be obtained from most dealers in drugs. It 
is a brown powder made from the llowers of a rather hand.some i)lant of 
the sunflower family {Compositcc). Its beauty leads florists tx) jiropagate 
it, though few who grow the plant know that it has any relati<jn to the 
powder sold in tlrug stores. It comes to us from the Mast, and the pow- 
der commonly sold here is imported, though an effi^rt has Ix'cn made in 
the west coast states to manufacture the powder in this country. 

The powder is thought to give off a volatile oil which ]>enetrates the 
breathing tubes of insects and thus by some irritating or suffocating effect 
overj)owers them. It is effective either dry, in water or when burned to 
produce a smudge, but must be fresh. It loses much of its effectiveness if 
kept in open jiackages. Though rather costly for use on field crops, it has 
a place in the household at times, and may sometimes be i)roiital>ly resorted 
to for limited outbreaks of garden i)ests. Unlike most other instx'ticides, 
this one is not hurtful to man; at any rate, not more so than snuff. 

White Hellebore. — This is another vegetable product, being the 
pulverized roolstocks of a plant {Vcratrum album) of the lily family, 
occurring in Ilurope and northern Africa. It is u.sed in this country for 
the rose slug, eitlu-r dry or in water, in the latter ca.^e alniut two heaping 
tablespoonfuls being stirred into a wooden bucketful (2J gallons) of water. 
It is a stomach poi.son and also a contact insecticide. 

Old .samy)les when not ke])t in airtight receiitades lose their virtue and 
tend to discredit this vegetable poison as a remedy for jx^sts. 

Coal Oil. — This oil has l>ecome well known as an insecticide in the 
form of an enuilsion. It is a good contact insecticide, serving the siime 
purpose as lime-sulphur wash in the dustructiou of scale insects, and having 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 257 

the advantage of remaining effective when diluted. It can, therefore, be 
used on foUage in summer for both scale insects and plant lice, and being 
quicker in its action than tobacco extract, has advantages imder some 
circumstances over the extract for the prompt destruction of soft-bodied 
insects. It is, however, more likely to do injury to plants, especially if the 
emulsion is badly prepared, and this, together with the work required in 
making it, leads practical men to neglect it whenever they can use some- 
thing else. 

The standard emulsion is made of one-half pound of whale oil or 
laundry soap dissolved in a gallon of boiling hot water, this to be added to 
two gallons of coal oil, and the whole churned for ten minutes by passing 
rapidly through a force pump. As thus made it can be diluted for use, 
one part to ten of water. 

Crude Oils. — These are sometimes used for the same purposes as the 
refined oil, and to render them easily mixed with water are sometimes 
mixed with caustic potash, fish oil and crude carbolic acid, producing a 
so-called miscible or soluble oil, which can be diluted with water for use 
like the coal oil emulsion. 

Soaps. — Many of the soaps sold in our market can be used at times as 
a means of lessening the injuries of insect pests. A good soapsuds fre- 
quently and freely used on plants infested with aphides or scale insects has 
a good effect, though not a very prompt one. Stronger solutions must be 
used with some caution to avoid injury to foliage. When trees are dormant 
very strong solutions (one or two pounds to a gallon of water) are sometimes 
used on the trunks for scale and other insects. 

Whale oil soap or fish oil soap, as it is sometimes called, is to be pre- 
ferred to most others because of its more even composition. It is particu- 
larly good for use in maldng coal oil emulsion. 

Coal Tar. — In the early days of fruit growing in America this substance 
was much used on the trunks of trees to prevent the ascent in the spring 
of the wingless female canker worm moth. It proved to have an injurious 
effect on the trees after a time, and hardened on exposure, so that the insects 
could pass over the barrier. It was then used on bands of tin, and by 
frequent renewal proved a useful check on the insect. But with the intro- 
duction of arsenites and spraying machinery, it was given up for the more 
convenient treatment. It is still used as a barrier, pom'ed along the ground, 
for chinch-bugs which are migrating from small grains to corn. Seed corn 
may be treated with it before planting to deter wire worms and the seed 
corn maggot from attacking the germinating seeds. The corn is &st 
immersed in warm water for a minute or two, then a couple of teaspoonfuls 
of the tar are stirred quicklj^ among the grain so as to bring a little in con- 
tact with each seed. It dries over night so as to be ready for planting the 
following day. The application does no harm to the germ, as has been 
determined by germination tests of treated seeds. 

Borax. — ^This substance has often been recommended for roaches in 



258 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

dwellinRs, and is sometimes found with an arsenite a« an ingredient of 
pr()|)riet;iry roach pastes. Kocent work done with a view to destroying 
tlie hirviL' of liouse tiics in manure hidicates that this is one of the best of 
insecticides for the purpose, exceUing for this use, coal oil, pyroligneus acid, 
formalin and Paris green. Sodium Inirate and crude calcium Ixjrate were 
lx)th found elTcctive in kiUing the larva', either wlicn used dr>' or in solu- 
tion. It was recommended as a result of the work done that alx)ut 0.02 
|X)und of borax be used in 8 bushels of manure. Larger amounts of borax 
are Ixjlieved to l)e injurious to plants when the manure is spread on land. 
The cost was estimated at one cent per horse i)er day. 

Other Insecticides. — Numerous other insecticides have been recom- 
mended, and have had a limited use, but, exccj^ting the fumigants con- 
sidered later, they have not Ix^en generally ado])ted by practical men. 
Among them may be mentioned benzene, which is sometimes applied to 
fal)rics to destroy clothes moth; carboiized plaster, sometimes recom- 
mended as a remedy for fleas about stal^les; fir-tree oil, lemon oil and oil 
of citronella, the latter often employed as a deterrent against the attacks 
of mosquitoes and also as a preventive of injury to seed corn in the soil, 
t^uassia, the effective ingredient of which is quassiin, is obtained from 
the wood of the Jamaican Picrastna cxcelsa. It is an old insecticide that 
has been perhaps most used in solutions for the hop apliis in the West. 
The extract is made from the "chips" by either soaking or boiling. 

Bisulphide of Carbon. — As sold by druggists and manufacturers, this 
is a brownish lluid wliicli quickly <lisai)])cars in the air when ex])osed in 
an o])en vessel. Its (lisagreeal)lc odor is due to im])urities, since the odor 
of pure bisuli>hide of carbon is not unpleasant. The fumes are not only 
Ix)isonous, but are inflammable, so that some care must l^e exercised in 
handling tlie fluid. It has ])roved of sjx^cial ser\'ice as a remedy for grain 
weevil, l)ean weevil and other insects attacking stored seeds, and f<jr the 
phylloxera of grajievincs in Europe, for the woollj^ aphis, for ants, and 
even for the clothes moth. Its great value for such purjwses comes not 
only from its effectiveness in destroying all insects, but also lx?cause it is 
not corrosive and is otherwise not injurious to seeds, fabrics and other 
objects fumigated. Tlic offensive odor is soon gone if objects that have 
been expo.sefl to the fumes are thoroughly aired. It cannot l)e used for 
fumigating plants infested with insects because of its destructive effect on 
the i)lants themselves. 

AlH)ut one fluid ounce should be used on each bushel of seed, and may 
be poured over the seeds or sim])ly placed in a saucer or other oix-n vessel 
set on their surface. It is absolutely necessary that the seeds be enclosed 
in a tight Ik)X or bin to get satisfactory results, and the time of ex-posure 
should not be less than two nours. 

Carbon Tetrachlorid. — The disagreeable odor of commercial bisuljihide 
of (•arl>on reii<lers it oi)jectionable to some j)00])le for use <»n fabrics infested 
with moth, and has led to tlie suggestion that carbon tetrachlorid, which 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 



259 



has a rather pleasant odor, be used in its stead. This also is a fluid, and is 
used in the same way as carbon bisulphide, namely, by pouring it into open 
dishes or crocks and allowing it to evaporate in a box, bin or room. 

It is not nearly as effective in small quantities as either cyanide of 
potassium or carbon bisulphide, and the large quantities that must be 
used increase the cost of treatment. 

Para-dichlorobenzene. — This is a recently proposed fumigant and is 
not yet in general use, because of its cost. It is not evil-smelling hke 




Making Preparations to Fumigate with Hydrocyanic Gas.^ 
Front edge of sheet tent and top of derrick ready to be pulled over tree. 

carbon bisulphide, and appears to be quite effective in destroying weevils 
in grain and clothes moth. Since it is not inflammable, it can be more 
safely used about dwellings, though its fumes have wonderful penetrating 
power and escape in some quantity even from tightly stoppered bottles. 
From a limited experience with it the writer is disposed to regard it very 
favorably for fumigating seeds and fabrics, though more extended tests 
may show it to have defects that are not now apparent. 

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas. — This gas is made from cyanide of potassium 
(98 per cent), commercial sulphuric acid of good grade and water. The 



» Courtesy of U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



200 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



gas produced is very poisonous, as are also the cyanide of potassium and 
sulphuric acid. When fumigating it is well to ]Aih'v a notice on the room 
or house warning iK'oplc not to enter. After the fumigating is accomplished 
it is advisable to ojkju up doors and windows and air out for ten minutes 
or more before entering. 

The dose to Ixj used dej^ends uix)n the space to Ixj fumigated and upon 
the character of the plants to be treated. Dormant trees can be ex|x>sed fox 




FUMIGATIVa WITH HYDROCYANIC GaS.' 

Sheet tent ready for introduction of chemicals. 

a time to vor>' strong fumos. Orowing plants must l>o treated cautiously 
with very mild doses. Some of them are very sensitive to the g:is an«l will 
l)e .slightly burned with any dose calculate<l to be of value in destroying 
insects. The condition of tlio air a.s to moisture may influence the results, 
.sinw dam])ii('ss favoi-s injury from the gas. 

For nurs('r>' stock it is customary to employ for each 100 cubic feet 
enclosed, the following: 

Cyanide of pota-ssiuro 1 minre 

Sulphuric acid 1.2.") fluid ounces 

Water 3 fluid ounces 

'Courtcay of U. S. Dcpt. of Asriculture. 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 261 

The box or house should be as nearly gas-tight as possible, with a very 
tight-fitting door. The water and sulphuric acid are placed in a deep open 
crock, then the cyanide of potassium, broken up into pieces about as large 
as a hickory nut, is poured into the crock and the door shut as quickly as 
possible. The fumes must be left about the trees not less than forty min- 
utes, and fifty minutes or an hour is better. Short exposures in badly con- 
structed houses have sometimes resulted in the sending out of living San 
Jose scale on trees. 

In the hothouse the gas must be used with very great care to avoid 
injury to plants. Plants of the grass family (Graminece) endure more gas 
than most others tested by the writer. Corn, timothy, blue grass and 
the like are not very sensitive. The leguminous plants, such as clover, 
sweet pea and cowpea, are very likely to suffer some injury with any but 
very light doses, and on this account it is best to use the less hurtful 
tobacco extract when practicable. The extract will not, however, destroy 
the adults of all hothouse pests, and has no effect at all on the scale insects 
nor on the immature white fly. 

FUNGICIDES 

When all has been said the number of fungicides approved by the 
experience of practical and scientific men is very small. Many have been 
recommended, but comparatively few have stood all the tests as to effective- 
ness, convenience of application and cheapness. Some are cheap and only 
slightly effective; some are difficult to prepare; others are too costly for 
extensive use. 

Copper Sulpnate. — At the head of the list stands copper sulphate, a 
cheap, effective fungicide, commonly known as bluestone. This is the 
active and most essential ingredient of Bordeaux mixture. Concentrated 
solutions of it cannot be used alone on foliage because of their caustic action. 
Id winter on dormant trees it is sometimes used for fungous troubles, about 
two pounds being dissolved in a barrel of water. A weaker solution^l . 
pound in 200 gallons of water — ^may be used on foliage in summer when 
fruit is well matured and it is not desirable to use sprays like Bordeaux 
mixture, which leave a residue. The bluestone may be quickly dissolved 
b}^ pouring boiling hot water over it. Wlien one is not hurried it may be 
dissolved by suspending in a loose sack in the water. It dissolves slowly 
if simply thrown in the water and allowed to settle. 

To avoid to some extent the delays involved in dissolving bluestone it 
is well to buy a finely powdered grade now manufactured for the making 
of fungicidal preparations. 

Bordeaux Mixture. — A standard formula for the preparation of this 
valuable mixture is the following: 

Bluestone 4'pound8 

Fresh lime 4 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 



262 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Dissolve the bluestonc in 25 gallons of water, slake the lime separately, 
and add water t<i make 25 gallons; then ix)ur the two, Imcket by bucket, 
into a third barrel so as to mix thoroughly. For ix?ach an<l plum, which are 
more tender than apple and grape, the above fonnula may Ik; changed to 
the following: 

Rluostono Of) pounds 

Fresh lime 2 . o pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

These are the best preparations known for mildews, rots, scabs, smuta 
and the like, and wliore one is doaling with a fungous trouble and is uncer- 
tain aa to how to i)rocoetl, the chances arc that he will accomplish as muc 




■2 



Efficiency of Hokdeaux Mixtcke on Totatoe-s. One Row 
Not Sprayed.' 



by using this preparation as with anything that could be recommended. 
It is tlic best gcii('ral-])urposo fmigici<lo we have at present. 

Copperas, or Iron Sulphate. — W'liilc this is less often used than blue- 
stone, yet it has decided fungicide and antiseptic value, and because of its 
cheapness may sometimes Ije found serviceable. As now used it generally 
comes to the market as a waste product in the manufacture of steel wire, and 
may bo })()UK]it for a cent or less per pound. 

Formalin, or Formaldehyde. — This ver>' valuable prcser\'ative and 
antiseptic has been much used of late as a remedy for potato scab and to 
some extent for wheat smut. It is sold as a fluid containing forty per cent 
of formalin. In this condition it is \cry acrid, and gives olT fumes that 
affect the eyes and nostrils implcasantly. Used on the hands, it quickly 
destroys tlic outer skin. It cannot, tlierefore, be employed except wheq 
> Courtesy of New York Asricultural Elxperunent Station, Qeaeva, N. Y. 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 



263 



greatly diluted. But since it retains its active fungicide and bactericidal 
properties even when very greatly diluted, and is not so dangerous a poison 
in this condition as are corrosive sublimate and other antiseptic agents, it 
becomes very useful in the hands of those who wish to disinfect quarters in 
which have been lodged people, or animals, affected with communicable 
diseases. The wash or spray of the dilute formalin has always seemed to 
the writer much better for such uses than the fumes of formalin as generally 
produced. 

On plants the action of even dilute sprays is very quickly destructive, 
and I doubt if it has a value for their treatment. But for seed wheat, 




Treating Grain with Formalin for Smut.^ 



likely to produce smutted heads and for potato scab it has proved very 
convenient and useful. A pint of the 40 per cent formalin may be poured 
into a barrel containing 30 gallons of water, stirred thoroughly, and the 
potatoes in a sack can be set in the barrel for disinfection. They should be 
left in the fluid for two hours and may then be removed and spread out on 
grass or on a clean plank floor to dry, when another sack may be placed 
in the barrel. The treated potatoes must not be put in barrels or sacks 
that have not been treated with the formalin. By having a number of 
barrels at hand, the work proceeds rapidly. 

Oats and wheat liable to smut may be treated by sprinkling the seed 
with dilute formalin (1 pint in a barrel of water) until every seed is moist, 
not wet, then leaving for several hours in a heap, finally spreading out 
to dry. 

* Courtesy of H. L. BoUey and M. L. Wilson, North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. 



264 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 

Fumes of formalin protlurcd cither by heat or by the u»c of pcrmaii- 
ganute of ]X)ta.sli have Ix^oii rccomnu'iidod jus a romody for jxjtuto jH-ab, 
but the writtM's oxiH'rioiice with tlio funics has not Ixkmj such as to warrant 
him in rccoiniMondiiif; lliom for tliis or for otlicr purixjscs. 

Bichloride of Mercury. — A ver>' i>oisonous cliomieal, vahiablo in dihitc 
sohitions (1 i)art in 1(XJ(J) as a disinfectant, and ])articularly RfMxl jls a 
remedy for iMjtato seal). The whitish, crystalline, veiy heavy material is 
very dangerous U) have about, since it may attract the attention of children 
or animals. It should of course always Ixj kejjt lalx^led an a poison. It 
dissolves slowly in cold water, and it is best, therefore, to make use of heat, 
afterward turning tlie dissolved }>oison into the larger quantity of water 
required, best koi)t in a barrel. CkxxI results liave Ix'cn obtained in check- 
ing potato scab with this disinfectant, using 4 ounces in liO gallons of 
water and soaking the seed potatoes one hour. Thej- were placed in the 
fluid in ginmy sacks and afterward sjiread out on a l»arn fl(X)r to dr>'. 

It is vciy essential that ]x)is()ned ]x)tat(X>s be not left where stock will 
eat tliem, and the ]x)isonous fluid nmst be disi)oscd of after treating tlie 
seed, so that it will do no harm. 

Lime-Sulphur Wash. — Tliis preparation of suljihur and lime has 
already been mentioned under insecticides. It has imdoubted fungicide 
value both in concentratxxl and dilute ])rei)arations. For foliage the latter 
must always be used. lOven the suli)hur alone thickly strewn over leaves 
is a fairly good remedy for mildew. A very small quantity of the sulphur 
dissolved in the presence of lune renders it more effective both as an insect- 
icide and as a fungicide. 

COMBINED INSECTICroES AND FUNGICmES 

The cost of treatment for jx^sts is greatly increased by tl)o necessity 
for frecjuent spraying wlien insecticides and fungicides are used sejjarately. 
They have been combined in some ca.scs witli no loss in the effectiveness of 
either, and one of the im])ortant jiroblems of l>oth entomologists and ])lant 
j)at}iologists at the i^resent time is the finding of ways and means of nnlucing 
tlu! mnnber of sprayings still further. 

Some work in determining the comp.atibility of different mixtures has 
already been done, and it may be said that the following mix without loss 
and in some cases with a gain in effectiveness: 

Arsrnato of load (nrid) and Bordeaux niixtiin'. 

An«'iiat<* of It'ad and tohacfo. 

Arsenate of lead and :icid.s. 

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and Ronlenux mixture. 

Ars«'nat4> <»f lead (neutral) and linie-.sul|>lutr. 

ArM-nate of lead (neutral) and tol)aec«). 

I'aris screen and Hordeaux niixtun-. 

Arsenife of lime and Horrleaux mixture. 

Arsenife of lime ancl tohacco. 

Lime-^ul|>liur and toi)aeer). 

Soapu und BurUeuux mixture. 



INSECTICIDES AND FUNGICIDES 265 



Soaps and tobacco. 
Soaps and emulsions. 
Tobacco and lime-sulphur. 
Tobacco and soaps. 
Tobacco and emulsions. 
Tobacco and alkaliea. 

Some dangerous combinations are the following: 

Arsenate of lead (acid) and soaps. 

Arsenate of lead (acid) and emulsions. 

Arsenate of lead (acid) and alkalies. 

Arsenate of lead (neutral) and acids. 

Arsenite of zinc and Ume-sulphur. 

Arsenite of zinc and soaps. 

Arsenite of zinc and emulsions. 

Arsenite of zinc and alkalies. 

Arsenite of zinc and acids. 

Hydrocyanic acid gas and Bordeaux mixture, 

REFERENCES 

The literature dealing with the subject is very extensive and cannot be 
cited at all adequately in a brief resume such as this. The few recent 
papers given will help the reader to an understanding of the range and 
character of work being done to throw light on this important subject: 

"The Spraying of Plants." Lodeman. 

"The Chemical Composition of Insecticides and Fungicides." Bui. 68, Bur. of 
Chem., U. S. Dept. Agr., 1902. 

"An Investigation of Lime-sulphur Injury — Its Causes and Prevention." Bui. 
No. 2, Ore. Agr. College Exp. Sta., 1913. 

"Fumigation and Spraying," Bui. No. 172, Kentucky Agr. Exper. Sta., 1913. 

"Chemical Studies of Lime-sulphur — Lead-arsenate Spray Mixture." Research 
Bui. No. 12, Iowa Exper. Sta., 1913. 

"Analyses of Materials Sold as Insecticides." Bui. No. 262. New Jersey Exper. 
Sta., 1913. 

"Preparation of Nicotin Extracts on the Farm." Bui. No. 218, Virginia Agr. 
Exper. Sta., 1914. 

"The CompatibiHty of Insecticides and Fungicides." By George P. Gray, VoL 
III, No. 7, Monthly Bulletin, Cal. State Comm. of Horticulture, 1914. 

"A Report of Chemical Investigations on the Lime-sulphur Spray." Research 
Bui. No. 3, Oregon Exper. Sta., 1914. 

"Experiments in the Dusting and Spraying of Apples." Bui. No. 340, N. Y. 
Agr. Exper. Station (Ithaca), 1914. 

"Analyses of Materials Sold as Insecticides and Fungicides." Bui. No. 384, 
N. Y. Agr. Exper. Station (Geneva), 1914. 

"Experiments in the Destruction of Fly Larvse in Horse Manure." Bui. No. 
118, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1914. 

"Quassiin as a Contact Insecticide." Bui. No. 165, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1914. 

"Notes on the Preparation of Bordeaux Mixtm-e." Circular No. 15, New Hamp- 
ehire Agr. Exper. Station. 1914. 

"Bordeaux Mixture.^' Technical Bui. No. 8, New Hampshire Agr. Exper. Sta- 
tion, 1914. 

"The Nicotin-Sulfate-Bordeaux Combination." By V. I. Safro, Journal of Eco- 
nomic Entomology, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1915. 

"Homemade Lime-sulphur Concentrate." Bui. No. 197, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1915. 

"Para-Dichlorobenzene as an Insect Fumigant." Bui. No. 167, U. S. Dept. 
Agr., 1915, 



200 SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



"Cactus Solution aa an Adhesive in Arsenical Sprays for Insects." Bui. No. 160, 

U. S. Di'pt- Akt., 1«J15. 

"FurthtT KxiMTiinentH in tho Du.stinn unci Spraying of Applea." I3ul. No. 354, 
New York Agr. Lx|x.'r. Station (Ithacji), 1915. 

California Expt. Station Bulletin 257. "Dosage Tables;" "Fumigation Studies 
No. 1." 

Kansas Exiit. Station Rullctin 203. "Orrhard Spraying." 

Michigan Kxj)t. Station Hiillctin (Tcchnicil) 21. " liowCont.'ictlnflccticidoeKill." 
New Jorsev Kxpt. Stati<in liiillctin IS. "Bordeaux .Mixtiin-." 
Can.idian bent, of .Xfiriculture Bulletin 19S. "Limo-Swli)liur Wash." 
U.S. Dtnt. ot Auriciilture, I'hmt Industry Bureau, Bulletin 205. "Some Factors 
Influencing tlie Efficiency of Bordeaux .Mixture." 
Farmers' Bulletins, V. S. Dept. f)f .\jjricu)ture: 

410. "S«'lf Boiled Lime Sulphur Mixture a.s a Promi.sinn I'tingieide." 
492. "Kimuous Enemies of the Fruit and Foliage of Apple Tree." 
695. "Arsenate of I/'ad, An Inaecticide Against Tobacco Worms." 
603. "Aruenical Cuttle Dips.'! 



PART III 

TABLES OF WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND 
AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 



(267) 



Table I.— Percentagk Composition of Agricultural Prodtjcts 



Crop. 



"Water. 



Corn, dent JO-J 

Corn, flint ^^-^ 

Corn, sweet 

Corn meal 

Corn cob 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn bran 

Corn germ 

Hominy chops 

Germ meal i ' j ' ' ' ' 

Dried starch and sugar feed 

Starch feed, wet 

Maize feed, Chicago 

Grano-gluten 

Cream gluten 

Gluten meal 

Gluten feed 

Wheat, all analyses 

Wheat, spring 

Wheat, winter 

Flour, high grade 

Flour, low grade 

Flour, dark feeding 

Bran, aU analyses 

Bran, spring wheat 

Bran, winter wheat 

Middlings 

Shorts 

Wheat screenings 

Rye 

Rye flour 

Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Barley 

Barley meal 

Barley screenings 

Brewers' grains, wet 

Brewers' grains, dried 

Malt sprouts 

Oats 

Oat meal 

Oat feed 

Oat dust 

Oat huUs 

Rice 

Rice meal 

Rice huUs 

Rice bran 

Rice poUsh 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat flour 

Buckwheat hulls 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat shorts 

Buckwheat middhngs 

Sorghum seed 




15.0 
10.7 
15.1 
9.1 
10.7 
11.1 
8.1 
10.9 
65.4 
9.1 
5.8 
8.1 
8.2 
7.8 
10.5 
10.4 
10.5 
12.2 
12.0 
9.7 
11.9 
11.5 
12.3 
12.1 
11.8 
11.6 
11.6 
13.1 
11.6 
9.3 
10.9 
11.9 
12.2 
75.7 
8.2 
10.2 
11.0 
7.9 
7.7 
6.5 
7.3 
12.4 
10.2 
8.2 
9.7 
10.0 
12.6 
14.6 
13.2 
10.5 
11.1 
13.2 
12.8 



1.5 
1.4 
1.9 
1.4 
1.4 
1.5 
1.3 
4.0 
2.5 
1.3 
0.9 
0.3 
0.9 
2.8 
0.7 
0.9 
1.1 
1.8 
1.9 
1.8 
0.6 
2.0 
4.3 
5.8 
5.4 
5.9 
3.3 
4.6 
2.9 
1.9 
0.7 
3.6 
5.9 
2.4 
2.6 
3.6 
1.0 
3.6 
5.7 
3.0 
2.0 
3.7 
6.9 
6.7 
0.4 
8.1 
13.2 
10.0 
6.7 
2.0 
1.0 
2.2 
3.0 
5.1 
4.8 
2.1 



10.3 
10.5 
11.6 
9.2 
2.4 
8.5 
9.0 
9.8 
9.8 
11.1 
19.7 
6.1 
22.8 
31.1 
36.1 
29.3 
24.0 
11.9 
12.5 
11.8 
14.9 
18.0 
19.9 
15.4 
16.1 
16.0 
15.6 
14.9 
12.5 
10.6 
6.7 
14.7 
18.0 
12.4 
10.5 
12.3 
5.4 
19.9 
23.2 
11.8 
14.7 
16.0 
13.5 
3.3 
7.4 
12.0 
3.6 
12.1 
11.7 
10.0 
6.9 
4.6 
12.4 
27.1 
28.9 
9.1 



2.2 
1.7 
2.8 
1.9 
30.1 
6.6 
12.7 
4.1 
3.8 
9.9 
4.7 
3.1 
7.6 
12.0 
1.3 
3.3 
5.3 
1.8 
1.8 
1.8 
0.3 
0.9 
3.8 
9.0 
8.0 
8.1 
4.6 
7.4 
4.9 
1.7 
0.4 
3.5 
5.1 
2.7 
6.5 
7.3 
3.8 
11.0 
10.7 
9.5 
0.9 
6.1 
18.2 
29.7 
0.2 
5.4 
35.7 
9.5 
6.3 
8.7 
0.3 
43.5 
31.9 
8.3 
4.1 
2.6 



70.4 

70.1 

66.8 

68.7 

54.9 

64.8 

62.2 

64.0 

64.5 

62.5 

54.8 

22.0 

52.7 

33.4 

39.0 

46.5 

51.2 

71.9 

71.2 

72.0 

70.0 

63.3 

56.2 

53.9 

54.5 

53.7 

60.4 

56.8 

65.1 

72.5 

78.3 

63.8 

59.9 

69.8 

66.3 

61.8 

12.5 

51.7 

48.5 

59.7 

67.4 

59.4 

50.2 

52.1 

79.2 

51.2 

38.6 

49.9 

58.0 

64.5 

75.8 

35.3 

38.8 

40.8 

41.9 

69.8 



5.0 
5.0 
8.1 
3.8 
0.5 



5 
8 
4 
3 
1 
9.0 
3.1 
6.9 
14.9 
14.8 
11.8 
10.6 
2.1 
2.2 
2.1 
2.0 
3.9 
6.2 
4.0 
4.5 
4.0 
4.0 
4.5 
3.0 
1.7 
0.8 
2.8 
2.8 
1.8 
2.2 
2.8 
1.6 
5.6 
1.7 
5.0 
7.1 
7.1 
4.8 
1.0 
0.4 
13.1 
0.7 
8.8 
7.3 
2.2 
1.4 
1.1 
3.3 
7.6 
7.1 
3.6 



(269) 



270 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Table I. — PERrrNTAfJE Composition or Agricultural Products (CorUinued). 



Crop. 



Broom-oorn seed 

Kaffir seed 

M illet Bccd 

Himnarian grass seed 

FlaxM-ed 

riaxwcd, prf>und 

Linseed iiu'id, old proross 

Linseed meal, new process 

Cotton peed 

Cotton seed, roasted 

Cottonseed meal 

Cottonseed hulls 

Cottonseed kernels (no hulls) 

Cocoanut cake 

Palm nut meal 

Suiidower s<'ed 

Sunflower seed cake , 

Peanut kernels (no hulls) 

Peanut meal 

Uajx' seef 1 cake 

Pea meal 

Soy bean 

Cowpea 

Ilors*' bean 

V(tn\ fodder, field rured 

Corn stover, field cured 

Corn husks, field cured 

Corn leaves, field cureil 

Corn fodder, preen 

Dent varieties, preen 

Dent, kernels glazed green 

Flint varieties, green 

Flint, kernels glazed green 

Sweet varieties, green 

Leaves and husks, green 

Stripped stalks, green 

Hat from Grasses: 

Mixefl grasses 

Timothy, all analyses 

Timothy, cut in full bloom 

Timothy, cut soon after bloom. . . 

Timothv, cut when near ripe 

Orchard gra.ss 

Redtop, cut at difTerent stages. . . 

Recltop, cut in full bloom 

Kentucky l>lue gra.ss 

Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed 

is in milk 

Kentucky blue grass, cut when seed 

is rij>e 

Hungarian gra.is 

Meadow fescue 

Indian rye grass 

Perennial rye grass 

Rowen (mixed) 



Water. 


A«h. 


Protein. 


Cnidr 
Fiber. 


Nitroicrn-i 

Fro*. 
Extract. 


11.5 


3.4 


10.2 


7.1 


63.6 


9.3 


1.5 


9.9 


1.4 


74.9 


14.0 


3.3 


11.8 


9.5 


57.4 


9.5 


5.0 


9.9 


7.7 


r)3.2 


9.2 


4.3 


2'J.6 


7.1 


'2A.2 


8.1 


4.7 


21.6 


7.3 


27.9 


9.2 


5.7 


32.9 


8.9 


35.4 


10 1 


5.8 


33.2 


9.5 


38.4 


10.3 


3.5 


18.4 


23.2 


24.7 


6.1 


5.5 


16.8 


20.4 


23.5 


8.2 


7.2 


42.3 


5.6 


23.6 


11.1 


2.8 


4.2 


40.3 


33.4 


6.2 


4.7 


31.2 


3.7 


17.6 


10.3 


5.9 


19.7 


14.4 


38.7 


10.4 


4.3 


16.8 


24.0 


35.0 


8.6 


2.6 


16.3 


29.9 


21.4 


10.8 


6.7 


32.8 


13.5 


27.1 


7.5 


2.4 


27.9 


7.0 


15.6 


10.7 


4.9 


47.6 


5.1 


23.7 


10.0 


7.9 


31.2 


11.3 


30.0 


10.5 


2.6 


20.2 


14.4 


51.1 


10.8 


4.7 


34.0 


4.8 


28.8 


14.8 


3.2 


20.8 


4.1 


55.7 


11.3 


3.8 


26.6 


7.2 


50.1 


42 2 


2.7 


4.5 


14.3 


34.7 


40.5 


3.4 


3.8 


19.7 


31.5 


50.9 


1.8 


2.5 


15.8 


28.3 


30.0 


5.5 


6.0 


21.4 


35.7 


79.3 


1.2 


1.8 


5.0 


12.2 


79.0 


1.2 


1.7 


5.6 


12.0 


73.4 


1.5 


2.0 


6.7 


15.5 


79.8 


1.1 


2.0 


4.3 


12.1 


77.1 


1.1 


2.7 


4.3 


14.6 


79.1 


1.3 


1.9 


4.4 


12.8 


66.2 


2.9 


2.1 


8.7 


19.0 


76.1 


0.7 


0.5 


7.3 


14.9 


15.3 


5.5 


7.4 


27.2 


42.1 


13.2 


4.4 


5.9 


29.0 


45.0 


15.0 


4.5 


6.0 


29.6 


41.9 


14.2 


4.4 


5.7 


28.1 


44.6 


14.1 


3.9 


5.0 


31.1 


43.7 


9.9 


6.0 


8.1 


32.4 


41.0 


8.9 


5.2 


7.9 


28.6 


47.5 


8.7 


4.9 


8.0 


29.9 


46.4 


21.2 


6.3 


7.8 


23.0 


37.8 


24.4 


7.0 


6.3 


24.5 


34.2 


27.8 


6.4 


5.8 


23.8 


33.2 


7.7 


6.0 


7.5 


27.7 


49.0 


20.0 


6.8 


7.0 


25 9 


38.4 


8.5 


6.9 


7.5 


30.5 


45 


14.0 


7.9 


10.1 


25.4 


40.5 


16 6 


6.8 


11.6 


22 5 


39.4 



Ft her 
Extract. 



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 



271 



Table I. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products (Continued). 



Crop. 



Hat from Grasses {Continued) : 

Mixed grasses and clovers 

Barley hay, cut in milk 

Oat hay, cut in milk 

Swamp hay 

Salt marsh hay 

Wild oat grass 

Buttercups 

White daisy 

Johnson grass 

Fresh Grass: 

Pasture grass 

Kentucky blue grass 

Timothy, different stages 

Orchard grass, in bloom 

Redtop, in bloom 

Oat fodder 

Rye fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

Barley fodder 

Hungarian grass 

Meadow fescue, in bloom 

Italian rye grass, coming in bloom . 

Tall oat grass, in bloom 

Japanese millet 

Barnyard miUet 

Hay from Legumes: 

Red clover 

Red clover in bloom 

Red clover, mammoth 

Alsike clover 

White clover 

Crimson clover 

Japan clover 

Alfalfa 

Cowpea 

Soy bean 

Pea vine 

Vetch 

SerradeUa 

Flat pea 

Peanut vines (no nuts) 

Sainfoin 

Fresh Legumes: 

Red clover, different stages 

Alsike clover 

Crimson clover 

AKalfa 

Cowpea 

Soy bean 

SerradeUa 

Horse bean 

Flat pea 



Water. 



Ash. 



12.9 

15.0 
15.0 
11.6 
10.4 
14.3 
9.3 
10.3 
10.2 



80.0 
65.1 
61.6 
73.0 
65.3 
62.2 
76.6 
79.4 
79.0 
71.1 
69.9 
73.2 
69.5 
75.0 
75.0 



15.3 

20.8 

21.2 

9.7 

9.7 

9.6 

11.0 

8.4 

10.7 

11.3 

15.0 

11.3 

9.2 

8.4 

7.6 

15.0 



70.8 
74.8 
80.9 
71.8 
83.6 
75.1 
79.5 
84.2 
66.7 



5.5 
4.2 
5.2 
6.7 
7.7 
3.8 
5.6 
6.6 
6.1 



2.0 
2.8 
2.1 
2.0 
2.3 
2.5 
1.8 
1.1 
1.8 
1.7 
1.8 
2.5 
2.0 
1.5 
1.9 



6.2 
6.6 
6.1 

8.3 
8.3 
8.6 
8.5 
7.4 
7.5 
7.2 
6.7 
7.9 
7.2 
7.9 
10.8 
7.3 



2.1 
2.0 
1.7 
2.7 
1.7 
2.6 
3.2 
1.2 
2.9 



Protein. 



10.1 
8.8 
9.3 
7.2 
5.5 
5.0 
9.9 
7.7 
7.2 



3.5 

4.1 



1 
6 
8 
4 
6 
1.3 
2.7 
3.1 
2.4 
3.1 
2.4 
2.1 
2.4 



12.3 
12.4 
10.7 
12.8 
15.7 
15.2 
13.8 
14.3 
16.6 
15.4 
13.7 
17.0 
15.2 
22.9 
10.7 
14.8 



4.4 
3.9 
3.1 

4.8 
2.4 
4.0 

2.7 
2.8 
8.7 



Crude 
Fiber. 



27.6 
24.7 
29.2 
26.6 
30.0 
25.0 
30.6 
30.0 
28.5 



4.0 

9.1 

11.8 

8.2 

11.0 

11.2 

11.6 

6.1 

7.9 

9.2 

10.8 

6.8 

9.4 

7.8 

7.0 



24.8 
21.9 
24.5 
25.6 
24.1 
27.2 
24^0 
25.0 
20.1 
22.3 
24.7 
25.4 
21.6 
26.2 
23.6 
20.4 



8.1 
7.4 
5.2 
7.4 
4.8 
6.7 
5.4 
4.9 
7.9 



Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract, 



41.3 
44.9 
39.0 
45.9 
44.1 
48.8 
41.1 
42.0 
45.9 



9.7 
17.6 
20.2 
13.3 
17.7 
19.3 

6.8 
11.6 

8.0 
14.2 
14.3 
13.3 
15.8 
13.1 
13.1 



38.1 
33.8 
33.6 
40.7 
39.3 
36.6 
39.0 
42.7 
42.2 
38.6 
37.6 
36.1 
44.2 
31.4 
42.7 
39.5 



13.5 
11.0 

8.4 
12.3 

7.1 
10.6 

8.6 

6.5 
12.2 




SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Table I. — Percentage Composition or Agricultural Products (Continued.) 



Crop. 



Straw: 

Wheat 

Rvo 

Oftt 

Biirlev 

Wheat chaff 

Oat chafT 

Huckwhcat straw 

»Soy bean 

Horse bean 

Silage: 

Com 

Sorehum 

Red clover 

Soy bean 

Apple pomace 

Cowpea vine 

Cow and soy bean vines mixed 

Field iK-a vine 

Barnyard millet and soy bean. 

Com and soy bean 

Rye 

Roots and TrnERs: 

Potato 

Common beets 

Sugar beets 

Mangels 

Turnip 

Rutabaga 

Carrot 

Parsnip 

Artichoke 

Sweet potato 

Miscellaneous: 

Cabbage 

Spurry 

Sugar beet leaves 

Purn|)kin, field 

Pumpkin, garden 

Prickly comfroy 

Rape 

Acoms, fresh 

Apples 

Cow's milk 

Cow's colustrum 

Mare's milk 

Ewe's milk 

Goat's milk 

Sow's milk 

Skim milk, gravitv 

Skim milk, centrifugal 

Buft<Tmilk 



Water. 



9.6 
7.1 
9.2 

14.2 
14.3 
14.3 

9.9 
10.1 

9.2 



79.1 
76.1 
72.0 
74.2 
85.0 
79.3 
69.8 
50.1 
79.0 
76.0 
80.8 



78.9 
88.5 
86.5 
90.9 
90.5 
88.6 
88.6 
88.3 
79.3 
71.1 



90.5 
75.7 
88.0 
90.9 
80.8 
88.4 
84.5 
55.3 
80.8 
87.2 
74.6 
91.0 
81.3 
86.9 
80.8 
90 4 
90 6 
90 1 



A«h. 



4.2 
3.2 
6.1 
5.7 
9.2 
10.0 
5.5 
6.8 
8.7 



1.4 
1.1 
2.6 
2.8 
0.6 
2.9 
4.5 
3.5 
2.8 
2.4 
1.6 



1.0 
1.0 
0.9 
1.1 
0.8 
1.2 
1.0 
0.7 
1.0 
1.0 



1.4 
4.0 
2.4 
0.5 
0.9 
2 2 

2;o 

1.0 
0.4 
0.7 
1.6 
0,4 
OS 
0.9 
1.1 
0.7 
0,7 
0.7 



Protein. 



3.4 

3.0 
4.0 
3.5 
4.5 
4.0 
5.2 
4.6 
8.8 



1.7 
0.8 
4.2 
4.1 
1.2 
2.7 
3.8 
5.9 
2.8 
2.5 
2.4 



2.1 
1.5 
1.8 
1.4 
1.1 
1.2 
1.1 
1.6 
2.6 
1.5 



2.4 
2.0 
2.6 
1.3 
1.8 
2.4 
2.3 
2.5 
0.7 
3,6 
17,6 
2,1 
6 3 
3.7 
6 2 
3.3 
3.1 
4 



Crude 
Fiber. 



.38.1 
38.9 
37.0 
36.0 
.36.0 
.34.0 
43.0 
40.4 
37.6 



6.0 
6.4 
8.4 
9.7 
3.3 
6.0 
9.5 
13.0 
7.2 
7.2 
5.8 



0.6 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 



1.5 
4,9 
2,2 

r7 

1.8 
1.6 
2.6 
4.4 
1.2 



Niirogco- 

Fri-c 
Extract. 



40 4 
46.6 
42.4 
39.0 
34.6 
36.2 
35.1 
37.4 
34.3 



11.0 

15.3 

11.6 

6.9 

8.8 

7.6 

11.1 

26.0 

7.2 

11.1 

9.2 



17.3 

8,0 

9.8 

5.5 

6.2 

7.5 

7.6 

10.2 

15.9 

24.7 



3.9 

12.7 

4.4 

5.2 

7.9 

5.1 

5.4 

34 8 

16.6 

4 9 
2 7 
6. 
4. 
4. 
4. 
4. 

5 3 
t () 



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 



273 



Table I. — Percentage Composition of Agricultural Products (Contimied). 



Crop. 



Miscellaneous (Continved) : 

Whey 

Dried blood 

Meat scrap 

Dried fish 

Beet pulp 

Beet molasses 

Apple pomace 

Distillery slops 

Dried sediment from distillery 

slops 



Water. 


Ash. 


Protein. 


93.8 


0.4 


0.6 


8.5 


4.7 


84.4 


10.7 


4.1 


71.2 


10.8 


29.2 


48.4 


89.8 


0.6 


0.9 


20.8 


10.6 


9.1 


76.7 


0.5 


1.4 


93.7 


0.2 


1.7 


5.0 


11.3 


27.4 



Crude 
Fiber. 



d.O 



Nitrogen- 
Free 
Extract. 



5.1 

o's 

G.3 
59.5 
16.2 

2.8 

36.1 



Ether 
Extract. 



0.1 
2.5 

13.7 
11.6 



1.3 
0.9 

12.3 



274 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Table II. — Fertility in Farm Proddce. 



Produce. 



Corn, pniin 

Corn, stover 

Corn mil) 

Oats, uriin 

Ont.s, stniw 

()at crop 

Wheat, grain 

Wheat, straw 

Wheat crop 

Soy beans 

Soy bean straw 

Soy l)ean crop 

'Piinothy fiay 

Clover seed 

Clover hay 

Cowpea hay 

Alfalfa hay 

Cotton, lint 

Cotton, seed 

Cotton, stalks 

Cotton erop 

Potatoes 

Sugar beets 

Ap|)l<'s 

leaves 

Wood growth 

Total crop 

Fat cattle 

Fat hogs 

Milk 

Butter 

Rye, grain 

Rye, straw 

Rye erop 

Beets, roots 

Beets, tops 

Beets, crop 

Gnuss 

Cotton cake, decoraticatcd. . 

RajM' cake 

Linseed cake 

Cotton cake, undccorticated . 

Linseed 

Palm kernel meal, English. . 

Malt dust 

Bran 

Mangels 

Swedes 

Carrots 

Turnips 



Amount. 



100 bushels. 
3 tons 



100 bushels. 
232 tons.... 



50 bushels. 
2yi tons.. , 



25 bushels . 
2} 4 tons. . . 



3 tons 

4 bushels . . . . 

4 tons 

3 tons 

8 tons 

1000 pounds. 
2000 pounds . 
4000 pounds . 



300bu.shels. 

20 tons 

(»00 bushels. 

4 tons 

1 tree 



1000 pounds. . 
\{}(W> pounds. . 
1(),(KK) pounds 
KM) pounds. . . 
1470 pounds. . 
iioOO pounds. . 
4970 pounds. . 
3r).S()() pounds 
92(K) pounds. . 
4().(XK) jxnnids 
40(X) pounds. . 
10<X) i)ounds. . 
1()(X) pounds. . 
KKX) pounds. . 
1000 poiuids. . 
1000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds. . 
1000 pounds. 
1000 pounds. 
UMM) pounds. 
KKX) pounds. . 
KMM) poiuids. 
KKH) pounds. . 



NilroBrn. 

|MIUtltlil. 



100 
4S 

148 
GG 
31 
97 
71 
25 
9G 
SO 
79 

159 

72 

7 

IGO 

130 

400 

3 

G3 

102 

108 
G3 

KX) 

47 

59 

6 

112 
25 
18 
57 
0. 
28 
12 
40 
88 
26 

114 
53 
GG 
48 
45 
39 
3G 
25 
38 



1.9 
2 . 4 
1 C, 
l.b 



I'li'wphr'ruN 
ixiunda. 



17 

6 
23 
11 

5 
16 
12 

4 
16 
13 

8 
21 

9 

2 
20 
14 
36 

0.4 
11 
18 

29.4 
13 
IS 

5 

7 

o 

14 
7 
3 
7 

0.2 
12 
4 
16 
22 
11 
33 
13 

31.2 

24.6 

19.6 

22.9 

15.4 

12 2 

17^2 

32.3 

0.7 

«» 

10 

O.G 



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 



275 



Table III.— Weight per Bushel, Seeding Rate per Acre, Number of Seeds per 
Pound and Depth to Cover Farm Seeds. 



Crop. 



Grasses. 

Bermuda 

Canada blue 

Creeping bent 

Crested dog's tail 

Erect brome 

Fowl meadow 

Hard fescue 

Italian rye 

Johnson 

Kentucky blue 

Meadow fescue 

Meadow foxtail 

Orchard 

Perennial rye 

Redtop 

Reed canary 

Rough stalked meadow 

Sheep's fescue 

Smooth brome 

Sweet vernal 

Tail meadow fescue 

Tall meadow oat 

Timothy 

Velvet 

Yellow oat 

Legumes. 

Alfalfa 

Alsike clover 

Bird's foot trefoil 

Bur clover 

Common vetch 

Cowpeas 

Crimson clover 

Field peas 

Garden peas 

Hairy vetch 

Horse bean 

Japan clover 

Kidney beans 

Kidney vetch 

Red clover 

Soy beans 

Sweet clover 

Velvet beans 

White clover 

White lupine 

Yellow trefoil 

Annual Forage Crops. 
Barnyard millet, Japanese. . 
Broom corn millet 



Weight per 
Bushel, 
pounds. 



36 

14-20 

15-20 

26-30 

14-15 

12-15 

10 

17-24 

28 

6-28 
12-28 

6-14 
12-21 
18-30 
12-40 
14-48 
12-28 
12-28 
12-14 

6-15 
14-25 

7-14 
44-50 

6-7 
12-14 



CO-63 

60-66 

60 

60 

60 

60 

60 

52-68 

60 

60 

56 

25 

60 

60-64 

60-64 

60 



60 

60-63 
50-60 
64-66 



35 

60 



Rate of 
Seeding. 



5 pecks . . . 
15 pounds. 



4-6 pecks . 
30 pounds. 



30 pounds. . . . 
4-6 pecks .... 

25 pounds. . . . 
12-15 pounds. 

40 pounds 

20 pounds.. . . 

30 pounds 

12-15 pounds. 
20-25 pounds. 

26 pounds 

30 pounds 

15-20 pounds. 
30 pounds .... 
12-20 pounds. 
30-40 pounds. 
15 pounds. . . . 
20 pounds .... 
30 pounds .... 



15-25 pounds. . 
4-8 pounds .... 

11 pounds 

15 pounds 

60 pounds 

4-6 pecks 

12-15 pounds. . 
23^-33^bushels 

3 bushels 

40-60 pounds. . 

4 bushels 

15-25 pounds. . 

18-22 pounds.. 
8-14 pounds. . . 

2-3 pecks 

2-4 pecks 

2-6 pecks 

3-6 pounds. . . . 
11^-2 bushels.. 
4-6 pounds 



1-2 pecks . 
2-4 pecks . 



Number 

of Seeds 

per Pound. 



180,000 

2,583,000 

8,000,000 

897,000 

162,000 



578,000 
275,000 



2,637,000 

264,000 

769,000 

457,000 

280,000 

4,135,000 

632,000 

2,706,000 

802,000 

120,000 

837,000 

246,000 

151,000 

1,146,000 

1,268,000 

1,540,000 



210,000 
692,000 
367,000 



129,000 
2,400-4,000 
800-2,400 
75,000 



370,000 
3,200-4,000 
169,000 
304,000 
2,000-7,000 



739,000 
305,006 



212,000 
212,000 



Depth 

to Cover, 

inches. 



M-1 






-^ 






J^-1 

M 

Vi-YA. 

Y4. 

Y4-Y2 

u 



Y2-\Y2 

Y2 

Y^-Y2 

^-1 



1-2 

l>i-3 
1-3 

13^-2 



1^-3^ 



y^-Ya. 
1-2 

y2 
1-2 

K-i 



X4 

1-2 



-\u 



276 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Table III. — Weight per Bushel, Seeding Rate per Acre, Nttmber or Seeds 
Pound and Deitu to Cover Farm Seedh {Coutiuued.) 



Crop. 



ANNtTAi. Forage Crops (Con 
United). 

Millet, common ) 

Milk't, HuiiKiiriun 1 

Millet, (itTtuan [ 

Millet, Golden Wonder J 

Ilape 

Sainfoin 

Serradellu , 

Sorghum 

Sunflower 

Cereals. 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Flax 

KafTir corn 

Milo 

Maize, shelled 

Maize, on cob 

Rice 

Rye 

Spelt 

Wheat 

Oat« 

Vegetables and Roots. 

Artichokes , 

Beets 

Carrots 

Mangels 

Parsnip 

Potato 

Turnip 

Rutabaga 

Sugar beets 

Sweet potato 

Fiber. 

Broom corn 

Cotton, Soa Island 

Cotton, upland 

Hemp 

•RooU. 



Woight nor 
liiwlK-l. 
pounds. 



50 

50-60 

26 

28-36 

56 

24-50 



48 

42-50 

56 

50-60 

50-60 

56 

70 

43^5 

56 

40-60 

60 

32 



50-60* 

50* 

50-(>0* 

45-50* 

60 

5.5-60* 

50-60* 

50-()0* 

50-55 



30-48 
44 
30 
44 



Rnt<' of 
Hwding. 



NiiniVjor 

<.r .s....<iji. 

p«T iMKind. 



-3 pecks. 



3-8 ixjunds. . . 
40 pounds. . . . 
40-50 j)ound.s. 
U^2bu.shel,s 
10-15 pounds. 



7-9 pecks. . 
3-5 pecks. . 
2-8 pecks. . 
3-12 quarts. 
5 quarts. . . . 



5-10 quarts. 

i-3 bushels. . 
5-10 pecks. . , 



3 pecks 

1 1-3 bu.shols . 
3 J 2-4 pecks. . 



212,000 



22,500 
23,000-35,000 



5-8 pecks. , 
8-10 pecks. 



0-8 bushels . . . 
4-6 pounds.. . . 
3-4 pounds. . . . 
5-8 pounds . . . . 
4-8 pounds. . . . 
8-15 bu.shels. . . 
2-4 pounds. . . . 
3-5 pounds. . . . 
l.S-20 nminil.s. . 
1 ] 2—i oushels . . 



2r),(X10 
3S4,(KK) 



112,(X)0 
208,000 



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 



277 



Table IV. — Water Requirements op Various Standard Crops. 



Crop. 



Wheat. 



Oats. 



Barley . 



Com. 



Rye. 
Peas. 



Potatoes . 



Alfalfa, 1 year . , 
Alfalfa, 2 years . 



Clover, red . . . 

Sugar beets . . . 
Rice 



Location. 



Germany 

Germany 

Germany 

India 

Akron, Col 

England 

Logan, Utah 

Davis, Cal 

Bozeman, Mont. 

Reno, Nev 

Germany 

Germany 

Germany . . . 

India 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

England 

Germany 

Germany 

Germany 

Germany 

India 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

Germany 

India 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

Germany 

Germany 

Akron, Col 

England 

Germany 

Germany 

India 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

Germany 

Wisconsin 

Akron, Col 

Davis, Cal 



State College, N. M 

Akron, Col 

England 

Germany 

Wisconsin 

Logan, Utah 

Akron, Col 

India 



Experimenter. 



Sorauer 

HeUriegel 

Von Seelhorst 

Leather 

Briggs and Shantz . . . 

Lawes 

Widstoe 

Fortier and Beckett . , 
Fortier and Gieseker . 
Fortier and Peterson . 

Wolhiy 

Sorauer 

HeUriegel 

Leather 

King 

Briggs and Shantz . . , 

Lawes , 

Wolhiy 

Sora,uer 

HeUriegel. 

Von Seelhorst 

Leather 

King 

Briggs and Shantz . . . 

WoUny 

Leather 

King 

Briggs and Shantz . . . 

HeUriegel 

Von Seelhorst 

Briggs and Shantz . . . 

Lawes 

WoUny 

HeUriegel 

Leather 

Kmg 

Briggs and Shantz . . , 

Von Seelhorst 

King 

Briggs and Shantz . . , 
Fortier and Beckett. 



Briggs and Shantz . 

Lawes 

HeUriegel 

King 

Widstoe 

Briggs and Shantz . 
Leather 



Pounds Water per 
Pound Dry Matter. 



Max- 
imum. 



708 
390 

333 
544 
534 
235 
489 
359 
334 
395 



464 

526 
639 

262 



366 
454 

401 
544 



390 
420 
438 
700 



353 



294 



1265 
971 
889 



363 
564 



Min- 
imum. 



328 



468 

427 
286 
226 
309 



339 

502 

598 

258 



263 
295 

375 
527 



305 
319 
315 
343 



231 



268 



1005 
522 

757 



297 
398 



Mean.* 



708 
339 
333 
544 
507 
235 
458 
326 
271 
360 
665 
600 
401 
469 
514 
614 
260 
774 
490 
297 
365 
468 
388 
539 
233 
337 
348 

- 369 
377 
469 
724 
235 
416 
292 
563 
477 
800 
281 
423 
448 

1102 
761 
823 

1068 
251 
330 
481 
497 
377 
811 



* This columo repiM»ata tb» »v«rage of all reliable and comparable testa. 



278 



SUCCESSFUL FARMING 



Table V. — Cost per Acre, Prodccinq Crops.* 



Crop. 



Btirlcy, fall plowed 

Clover, cut lor Heed 

Com, ears hu.sked from Btunding stalks 

Corn, cut, shocked and shredded 

Corn, cut, shocked and hauled in from field. . . 

Corn, prtjwn thickly and silcx'd 

Flax.'^ecd, thre.slu'd fnjni windrow 

Flaxseed, stacked from windrow 

Flaxseed, bound, shocked, stacked, threshed. . 

Fo<lder corn, cut and shocked in field 

Fcnlder corn, cut, shockeil and stacked 

Hay, timothy and clover, first crop 

Hay, timothy and clover, two cuttings 

Hay, millet 

Hay, wild grasses 

Hay, timothy 

Hemp 

Mangels 

Oats, fall plowed 

Oats, on disked corn stubble 

Potatoes, machine production 

Potatoes, machine production, use of fertilizer 

Timothy, cut for seed 

Wheat, fall plowed 



Average Coat. 



$8.21 

6.60 

10.44 

15.30 

10.26 

19.89 

7.50 

7.85 

7.28 

9.65 

12.36 

5.59 

7.18 

7.10 

4.04 

3.39 

6.74 

32.68 

8.86 

8.88 

26.37 

37.72 

4.43 

7 2.-) 



*Miimc«ota Experiment StatioD, Bulletin No. 117, page 29. 



Table VI. — Average Farm Prices for the United States. 
Fivb-Year Periods, 1866-1915.* 



Agricultural Region. 


Total Annual Cost of 

Keopinj? One Horse. 

Average 5 Years, 1908-12. 


Actual Cost per Hour 

of Work for One Horse. 

Average 9 Years, 1904-12. 


Southeastern Minnesota 


$103.27 

100.64 
81.67 


9.72 cents 


{Southwestern Minnesota 


SAM cents t 


Northwestern Minnesota 


8.05 cents 







Not*. — The cont figure* shown in thin table have been selerted from Ihe Ntalistirnl data of tho 
DiviaioD of Farm Management of the Minnesota .\grirultural Experiment Station. Thesie ficurea are 
not estimates, but actualreeords from a large nunilwr of Minnesota farms. The avernges are basted on 
records of alxjut AM horses in each region. The annual cost includes interest on investment, deprecia- 
tion, harness depreciation, shoeing, fee<l, labor and mincellaneou8 expense. Feed is the larRe-it item in 
the cost of farm horse power, representinn on the average *s to *i of the total cost. The ccwt of horao 
power per hour is computed by dividing the total annual coat by the actuul uumbc; of Luurs worked. 

• Taken from "Field Maa&gcxacat aad Crop Rotatioa.'! by Parkei. 
t Bcvea-yaar avvittg*. 



AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS 279 

Table VII. — Weights and Measures. 

AVOIRDUPOIS weight. 

16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound (lb.). 

100 pounds =1 hundredweight (cwt.). 

20 cwt = 1 ton (T.). 

1 ton =20 cwt. or 2000 lbs. or 32,000 oz. 

DRY MEASURE. 

2 pints (pt.) =1 quart (qt.). 

8 qts =1 peck (pk.). 

4 pks =1 bushel (bu.). 

1 bu =2150.42 cu. in, 

liquid MEASURE. 

4 gills (gi.) =1 pint (pt.). 

2 pints =1 quart (qt.). 

4 quarts =1 gallon (gal.). 

313^ gallons =1 barrel (bbl.). 

U. S. gallon =231 cu. in. 

7H gallons water = 1 cu. ft. approximately. 

LINEAR MEASURE. 

12 inches (in.) =1 foot (ft.). 

3 feet (ft.) =1 yard (yd.). 

53^ yds. or 16H ft = 1 rod (rd.). 

820 rds =1 mile (mi.). 

1 mile or 320 rds. or 1760 yds. or 5280 ft or 63,360 ins. 

SQUARE MEASURE. 

144 square inches (sq. in.) =1 square foot (sq. ft.). 

9 square feet (sq. ft.) =1 square yard (sq. yd.). 

303^ sq. yds =1 square rod (sq. rd.). 

160 sq. rds =1 acre (a.). 

640 acres =1 square mile (sq. mi ). 

1 sq. mi =1 section. 

36 sections =1 township (twp.) 

43,560 sq. ft =1 acre. 

SOLID OR CUBIC MEASURE. 

1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) =1 cubic foot (cu. ft.). 

27 cu. ft =1 cubic yard (cu. yd.). 

1 cu. yd =27 cu. ft. or 46,656 cu. in. 

1 cu. yd =1 load. 

24% cu. ft =1 perch. 

128 cu. ft. or 8 ft. X 4 ft. X 4 ft =1 cord. 

1 ft. X 12 in. X 1 in =1 board foot. 

surveyor's linear measure. 

7.92 inches =1 link. 

100 links =1 chain. 

80 chains =1 mile. 

Gunter's chain is the unit and is 66 feet long. 

surveyor's square MEASURE. 

10,000 sq. links '. =1 square chain. 

10 sq. chains =1 acre. 

10 chains square =10 acres. 



